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The Problem of Narrative Clarity in Silent Films

自1904年起，美国的商业电影制作越来越倾向于讲故事。

Beginning in 1904, American commercial filmmaking became increasingly oriented toward storytelling.

而且，随着对单卷电影的强调，叙事变得更长，也就需要进行一系列的拍摄。

Moreover, with the new emphasis on one-reel films, narratives became longer and necessitated a series of camera shots.

电影制作人面临的挑战是制作出观众能够理解的故事电影。

Filmmakers faced the challenge of making story films that would be comprehensible to audiences.

如何将剪辑、摄影、表演和灯光等技术结合起来，去阐明电影中正在发生的事情?

How could techniques of editing, camerawork, acting, and lighting be combined so as to clarify what was happening in a film?

观众如何理解动作发生的时间以及地点?

How could the spectator grasp where and when the action was occurring?

在过去几年的时间里，电影制作人将这些问题解决了。

Over the span of several years, filmmakers solved such problems.

有时他们相互影响，而在一些时候，两个电影制作人可能独立研发了同一个技术。

Sometimes they influenced each other, while at other times two filmmakers might happen on the same technique independently.

到1917年，电影制片人已经制定出一套正式的原则体系，它也成为了美国电影制作的标准。

By 1917, filmmakers had worked out a system of formal principles that were standard in American filmmaking.

这一体系被称为“经典好莱坞电影”。

That system has come to be called the classical Hollywood cinema.

尽管有这个名字，在电影制作以好莱坞为中心之前，这个体系的许多基本原则就已经制定出来了，而且实际上其中许多原则首先是在其他国家试行的。

Despite that name, many of the basic principles of the system were being worked out before filmmaking was centered in Hollywood, and, indeed, many of those principles were first tried in other countries.

在第一次世界大战之前的几年里，因为电影在它们的原籍国之外传播广泛，它们的风格在很大程度上仍然是国际化的，。

In the years before the First World War, film style was still largely international, since films circulated widely outside their country of origin.

在无声电影时代早期，电影制片人面临的一个基本问题是观众无法理解许多电影中的因果、空间和时间关系。

The basic problem that confronted filmmakers early in the silent-movie era was that audiences could not understand the causal, spatial, and temporal relations in many films.

如果编辑突然改变了地点，观众可能不知道新动作发生在哪里。

If the editing abruptly changed locales, the spectator might not grasp where the new action was occurring.

演员精心制作的手势可能无法表达出关键动作的含义。

An actor's elaborate pantomime might fail to convey the meaning of a crucial action.

一篇对1906年一部电影的评论揭示了这样一个问题: “尽管的确有很多好电影,但是一些拍摄很好的电影整体观感却很差,因为制片人熟悉电影画面和情节,没有考虑到这部电影不是为他而作，而是为观众而作。

A review of a 1906 film lays out the problem: "Regardless of the fact that there are a number of good motion pictures brought out, it is true that there are some which, although photographically good, are poor because the manufacturer, being familiar with the picture and the plot, does not take into consideration that the film was not made for him but for the audience.

最近看的一部电影在摄影上很逼真，但故事情节却让观众看不懂。”

A movie recently seen was very good photographically, but the story could not be understood by the audience."

在一些剧院，叙述者可能会在电影放映时解释情节，但制片人不能依赖这种辅助手段。

In a few theaters, a lecturer might explain the plot as the film unrolled, but producers could not rely on such aids.

电影制片人开始认为电影应该引导观众的注意力，让故事的各个方面都尽可能清晰地展现在屏幕上。

Filmmakers came to assume that a film should guide the spectator's attention, making every aspect of the story on the screen as clear as possible.

特别是，电影越来越多地建立起一系列叙事因果链。

In particular, films increasingly set up a chain of narrative causes and effects.

一件事显然会导致一种结果，而这种结果又会反过来引起另一种结果，如此循环。

One event would plainly lead to an effect, which would in turn cause another effect, and so on.

此外，事件往往是由角色的信仰或欲望引起的。

Moreover, an event was typically caused by a character's beliefs or desires.

人物心理在早期电影中并不是特别重要。

Character psychology had not been particularly important in early films.

滑稽的追逐或简短的情节剧更多地依赖于身体动作或熟悉的场景，而不是人物特征。

Comical chases or brief melodramas depended more on physical action or familiar situations than on character traits.

然而，在1907年之后，人物心理逐渐成为行为的动机。

Increasingly after 1907, however, character psychology motivated actions.

通过一系列人物的目标和因此产生的冲突，观众可以理解动作。

By following a series of characters' goals and resulting conflicts, the spectator could comprehend the action.

无声电影风格的每一个方面都被用来提高叙事的清晰度。

Every aspect of the silent-film style came to be used to enhance narrative clarity.

有深度的分阶段或成帧动作可以展示元素之间的空间关系。

Staging or framing action in depth could show the spatial relationships among elements.

字幕可以在图像所传达的内容之外添加叙述信息。

Intertitles could add narrative information beyond what the images conveyed.

演员的近景镜头可以更准确地表明他们的情绪。

Closer views of the actors could suggest their emotions more precisely.

色彩、布景设计和灯光可以暗示一天中的时间、动作的环境等等。

Color, set design, and lighting could imply time of day, the milieu of the action, and so on.

这一时期最重要的一些创新包括将镜头组合或编辑成故事的方式。

Some of the most important innovations of this period involved the ways in which camera shots were put together, or edited, to create a story.

从某种意义上说，剪辑对电影制作人来说是一种恩惠，允许它从一个空间迅速移动到另一个空间，或者将镜头切到更近的位置来揭示细节。

In one sense, editing was a boon to the filmmaker, permitting instant movement from one space to another or cuts to closer views to reveal details.

但是，如果观众无法跟上一个镜头与下一个镜头之间的时间或空间联系，剪辑也可能导致混乱。

But if the spectator could not keep track of the temporal or spatial relations between one shot and the next, editing might also lead to confusion.

在一些情况下，字幕可能会有所帮助。

编剧也开始强调镜头之间的连贯性。

Editing also came to emphasize continuity among shots.

某些视觉线索表明，时间不间断地在剪辑片段中流逝。

Certain visual cues indicated that time was flowing uninterruptedly across cuts.

在场景之间，其他线索可能会暗示有多少时间被跳过了。

Between scenes, other cues might suggest how much time had been skipped over.

当剪辑片段从一个空间转移到另一个空间时，导演找到了引导观众的方法。

When a cut moved from one space to another, the director found ways to orient the viewer.

Paragraph 1 implies that compared with later films, American films before 1904 were

According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true about the filmmaking style known as classical Hollywood cinema?

According to paragraph 3, which of the following did NOT generally cause a lack of understanding in very early silent-movie audiences?

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

According to paragraph 4, all of the following were characteristic of early films EXCEPT

The word "imply” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 6, early filmmakers provided visual cues to audiences in order to

Which of the following best describes the overall organization of the passage?

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. The usual forms of those films relied on other ways to maintain coherence.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The Problem of Narrative Clarity in Silent Films Beginning in 1904, American commercial filmmaking became increasingly oriented toward storytelling. Moreover, with the new emphasis on one-reel films, narratives became longer and necessitated a series of camera shots. Filmmakers faced the challenge of making story films that would be comprehensible to audiences. How could techniques of editing, camerawork, acting, and lighting be combined so as to clarify what was happening in a film? How could the spectator grasp where and when the action was occurring? Over the span of several years, filmmakers solved such problems. Sometimes they influenced each other, while at other times two filmmakers might happen on the same technique independently. Some devices were tried and abandoned. By 1917, filmmakers had worked out a system of formal principles that were standard in American filmmaking. That system has come to be called the classical Hollywood cinema. Despite that name, many of the basic principles of the system were being worked out before filmmaking was centered in Hollywood, and, indeed, many of those principles were first tried in other countries. In the years before the First World War, film style was still largely international, since films circulated widely outside their country of origin. The basic problem that confronted filmmakers early in the silent-movie era was that audiences could not understand the causal, spatial, and temporal relations in many films. If the editing abruptly changed locales, the spectator might not grasp where the new action was occurring. An actor’s elaborate pantomime might fail to convey the meaning of a crucial action. A review of a 1906 film lays out the problem: “Regardless of the fact that there are a number of good motion pictures brought out, it is true that there are some which, although photographically good, are poor because the manufacturer, being familiar with the picture and the plot, does not take into consideration that the film was not made for him but for the audience. A movie recently seen was very good photographically, but the story could not be understood by the audience.” In a few theaters, a lecturer might explain the plot as the film unrolled, but producers could not rely on such aids. Filmmakers came to assume that a film should guide the spectator’s attention, making every aspect of the story on the screen as clear as possible. In particular, films increasingly set up a chain of narrative causes and effects. One event would plainly lead to an effect, which would in turn cause another effect, and so on. Moreover, an event was typically caused by a character’s beliefs or desires. Character psychology had not been particularly important in early films. Comical chases or brief melodramas depended more on physical action or familiar situations than on character traits. Increasingly after 1907, however, character psychology motivated actions. By following a series of characters’ goals and resulting conflicts, the spectator could comprehend the action. Every aspect of the silent-film style came to be used to enhance narrative clarity. Staging or framing action in depth could show the spatial relationships among elements. Intertitles could add narrative information beyond what the images conveyed. Closer views of the actors could suggest their emotions more precisely. Color, set design, and lighting could imply time of day, the milieu of the action, and so on. Some of the most important innovations of this period involved the ways in which camera shots were put together, or edited, to create a story. In one sense, editing was a boon to the filmmaker, permitting instant movement from one space to another or cuts to closer views to reveal details. But if the spectator could not keep track of the temporal or spatial relations between one shot and the next, editing might also lead to confusion. In some cases, intertitles could help. Editing also came to emphasize continuity among shots. Certain visual cues indicated that time was flowing uninterruptedly across cuts. Between scenes, other cues might suggest how much time had been skipped over. When a cut moved from one space to another, the director found ways to orient the viewer.