『新东方在线托福阅读』为托福考生准备了ETS托福TPO/Official 49 Passage 2阅读练习：The word “phenomena” in the passage is closest in meaning to真题题目及答案解析，TPO/Official 49 Passage 2阅读原文范文音频翻译

托福TPO/Official 49 Passage 2阅读原文The word “phenomena” in the passage is closest in meaning to题目答案及解析-新东方托福官方网校手机版

活字印刷是欧洲中世纪和近代早期最好的分割。

Nothing divided the medieval world in Europe more decisively from the Early Modern period than printing with movable type.

这项德国的发明是一个复杂过程的顶点。

It was a German invention and the culmination of a complex process.

古代世界主要在纸莎草纸上记录文字作品。

The world of antiquity had recorded its writings mainly on papyrus.

公元前200年到公元300年间，纸莎草纸被牛皮纸替代，经过加工的小牛皮被浮石处理光滑。

Between 200 B.C. and A.D. 300, this was supplemented by vellum, calf skin treated and then smoothed by pumice stone.

罗马晚期，人们在牛皮纸上的基础上增加了羊皮纸，绵羊皮或山羊皮被处理平整，与牛皮纸加工方法类似。

To this in late Roman times was added parchment, similarly made from the smoothed skin of sheep or goats.

中世纪早期，欧洲从中国进口了一种工业加工工艺，该工艺将几乎所有的纤维材料变成了纸浆，然后铺成薄片。

In the early Middle Ages, Europe imported an industrial process from China, which turned almost any kind of fibrous material into pulp that was then spread in sheets.

大约1150年，西班牙人已经开发出了第一家生产廉价纸的制造厂（“纸”这个词来自“纸莎草纸”的缩写，成为了标准术语）。

By about 1150 the Spanish had developed the first mill for making cheap paper (a word contracted from “papyrus,” which became the standard term).

中世纪晚期最重要的一个现象是廉价纸张的供应日益增加。

One of the most important phenomena of the later Middle Ages was the growing availability of cheap paper.

到15世纪，即使在技术显著落后的英格兰，买一张纸或八开本的纸也只需要一分钱。

Even in England, where technology lagged far behind, a sheet of paper, or eight octavo pages, cost only a penny by the fifteenth century.

在1446-1448年间，两位德国金匠Johannes Gutenberg和Johann Fust利用廉价纸张对已书写纸张的重复利用方式进行了重大改进。

In the years 1446-1448, two German goldsmiths, Johannes Gutenberg and Johann Fust, made use of cheap paper to introduce a critical improvement in the way written pages were reproduced.

不同于从木块上打印的旧方法，这两个德国人为凸版印刷发明了活字印刷机。

Printing from wooden blocks was the old method; what the Germans did was to invent movable type for the letterpress.

它具有三个优点：可以重复使用，直到用坏为止。它是金属材质，从模具中铸造而成，因此可以很轻易更新；它使刻的字母保持相同。

It had three merits: it could be used repeatedly until worn out; it was cast in metal from a mold and so could be renewed without difficulty; and it made lettering uniform.

1450年，Gutenberg开始印刷圣经，这是第一本印刷版书籍，被称为Gutenberg。

In 1450, Gutenberg began work on his Bible, the first printed book, known as the Gutenberg.

这本奇迹般的书籍于1455年完成。

It was completed in 1455 and is a marvel.

且不说这个主要想法，Gutenberg还必须解决一系列实际问题，包括在工艺流程中纸张和墨水的放置方法，以及在实际印刷中，他改良了酿酒师所使用的螺旋压力机。令人惊讶的是，他的第一部印刷书籍看起来技艺成熟，并不不像在技艺的初级阶段。

As Gutenberg, apart from getting the key idea, had to solve a lot of practical problems, including imposing paper and ink into the process, and the actual printing itself, for which he adapted the screw press used by winemakers, it is amazing that his first product does not look at all rudimentary.

接触过这本书的人都对它的清晰度和质量感到震惊。

Those who handle it are struck by its clarity and quality.

像其他的技术革命一样，印刷术发展的势头非常迅猛。

Printing was one of those technical revolutions that developed its own momentum at extraordinary speed.

在15世纪的欧洲，中级工艺（即由熟练的手工艺人组成的作坊）建立得很好并且迅速传播，尤其在德国和意大利。

Europe in the fifteenth century was a place where intermediate technology—that is, workshops with skilled craftspeople—was well established and spreading fast, especially in Germany and Italy.

这样的作坊能够轻松承担印刷任务，因此成为欧洲第一个真正的工业。

Such workshops were able to take on printing easily, and it thus became Europe’s first true industry.

两个因素促成了该过程：对廉价古典文本的新需求以及将拉丁文圣经翻译成“现代”语言。

The process was aided by two factors: the new demand for cheap classical texts and the translation of the Latin Bible into “modern” languages.

印刷机在德国的几个城市如雨后春笋般涌现，到1470年，德国纽伦堡已成为国际出版贸易的中心，通过24台印刷机印刷的书籍，在西欧和中欧的展览会上被分发。

Presses sprang up in several German cities, and by 1470, Nuremberg, Germany, had established itself as the center of the international publishing trade, printing books from 24 presses and distributing them at trade fairs all over western and central Europe.

古老的修道院誊抄间（僧侣手工抄写文字的修道院作坊）与新印刷机紧密合作，继续印刷活字印刷无法提供的奢侈品。

The old monastic scriptoria—monastery workshops where monks copied texts by hand—worked closely alongside the new presses, continuing to produce the luxury goods that movable-type printing could not yet supply.

印刷朝着廉价批量销售的目标前进。

尽管技术之间没有竞争，但国家之间存在竞争。

Although there was no competition between the technologies, there was rivalry between nations.

为了追赶德国，意大利人做出了积极的努力而且很成功。

The Italians made energetic and successful efforts to catch up with Germany.

他们最成功的誊抄间迅速引进了两部领先的德国印刷机到他们的书籍生产车间来印刷书籍。

Their most successful scriptorium quickly imported two leading German printers to set up presses in their book-producing shop.

德国印刷机的缺点是字体复杂，意大利人嘲笑地将其称为“哥特式”，后来又被称为黑体字。

German printers had the disadvantage of working with the complex typeface that the Italians sneeringly referred to as “Gothic” and that later became known as black letter.

德国以外的读者不认可这种字体。

Outside Germany, readers found this typeface disagreeable.

同时，意大利人有一种清晰的字体，即罗马字，后来成为未来更受欢迎的字体。

The Italians, on the other hand, had a clear typeface known as roman that became the type of the future.

因此，尽管德国人利用纸制革命引入了活字印刷，但意大利人却通过其艺术性重新获得了主动权。

Hence, although the Germans made use of the paper revolution to introduce movable type, the Italians went far to regain the initiative by their artistry.

到1500年，60个德国城市中有印刷公司，但仅威尼斯就有150台印刷机。

By 1500 there were printing firms in 60 German cities, but there were 150 presses in Venice alone.

但是，由于许多国家和政府都希望拥有自己的印刷机，因此贸易很快就走向国际化。

However, since many nations and governments wanted their own presses, the trade quickly became international.

这种工业传播的累积影响是惊人的。

The cumulative impact of this industrial spread was spectacular.

在印刷术出现之前，只有欧洲十几个最大的图书馆才有600本藏书。

Before printing, only the very largest libraries, of which there were a dozen in Europe, had as many as 600 books.

整个欧洲大陆的藏书总数不到100,000本。

The total number of books on the entire Continent was well under 100,000.

但是到了1500年，印刷术出现后的仅仅45年后，书库中便有900万本书。

But by 1500, after only 45 years of the printed book, there were 9 million in circulation.

The word “this” in the passage refers to

The word “contracted” in the passage is closest in meaning to

The word “phenomena” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 2, all of the following were advantages of movable metal type EXCEPT:

The word “rudimentary” in the passage is closest in meaning to

In mentioning the screw press, the author is indicating that

According to the passage, the role of the monastic scriptoria was to

According to paragraph 3, for whom were printed books mainly produced?

Why does the author mention 24 presses in the discussion?

Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 4 about the “Gothic” typeface used in Germany?

The word “impact” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraphs 4 and 5, how did German and Italian contributions to the printing industry differ?

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. The typeface that followed was italic, with a slanted appearance in the style of handwriting and a name that was recognizably Italian.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Movable Type Nothing divided the medieval world in Europe more decisively from the Early Modern period than printing with movable type. It was a German invention and the culmination of a complex process. The world of antiquity had recorded its writings mainly on papyrus. Between 200 B.C. and A.D. 300, this was supplemented by vellum, calf skin treated and then smoothed by pumice stone. To this in late Roman times was added parchment, similarly made from the smoothed skin of sheep or goats. In the early Middle Ages, Europe imported an industrial process from China, which turned almost any kind of fibrous material into pulp that was then spread in sheets. This was known as cloth parchment. By about 1150 the Spanish had developed the first mill for making cheap paper (a word contracted from “papyrus,” which became the standard term). One of the most important phenomena of the later Middle Ages was the growing availability of cheap paper. Even in England, where technology lagged far behind, a sheet of paper, or eight octavo pages, cost only a penny by the fifteenth century. In the years 1446-1448, two German goldsmiths, Johannes Gutenberg and Johann Fust, made use of cheap paper to introduce a critical improvement in the way written pages were reproduced. Printing from wooden blocks was the old method; what the Germans did was to invent movable type for the letterpress. It had three merits: it could be used repeatedly until worn out; it was cast in metal from a mold and so could be renewed without difficulty; and it made lettering uniform. In 1450, Gutenberg began work on his Bible, the first printed book, known as the Gutenberg. It was completed in 1455 and is a marvel. As Gutenberg, apart from getting the key idea, had to solve a lot of practical problems, including imposing paper and ink into the process, and the actual printing itself, for which he adapted the screw press used by winemakers, it is amazing that his first product does not look at all rudimentary. Those who handle it are struck by its clarity and quality. Printing was one of those technical revolutions that developed its own momentum at extraordinary speed. Europe in the fifteenth century was a place where intermediate technology—that is, workshops with skilled craftspeople—was well established and spreading fast, especially in Germany and Italy. Such workshops were able to take on printing easily, and it thus became Europe’s first true industry. The process was aided by two factors: the new demand for cheap classical texts and the translation of the Latin Bible into “modern” languages. Works of reference were also in demand. Presses sprang up in several German cities, and by 1470, Nuremberg, Germany, had established itself as the center of the international publishing trade, printing books from 24 presses and distributing them at trade fairs all over western and central Europe. The old monastic scriptoria—monastery workshops where monks copied texts by hand—worked closely alongside the new presses, continuing to produce the luxury goods that movable-type printing could not yet supply. Printing aimed at a cheap mass sale. Although there was no competition between the technologies, there was rivalry between nations. The Italians made energetic and successful efforts to catch up with Germany. Their most successful scriptorium quickly imported two leading German printers to set up presses in their book-producing shop.  German printers had the disadvantage of working with the complex typeface that the Italians sneeringly referred to as “Gothic” and that later became known as black letter.  Outside Germany, readers found this typeface disagreeable.  The Italians, on the other hand, had a clear typeface known as roman that became the type of the future.  Hence, although the Germans made use of the paper revolution to introduce movable type, the Italians went far to regain the initiative by their artistry. By 1500 there were printing firms in 60 German cities, but there were 150 presses in Venice alone. However, since many nations and governments wanted their own presses, the trade quickly became international. The cumulative impact of this industrial spread was spectacular. Before printing, only the very largest libraries, of which there were a dozen in Europe, had as many as 600 books. The total number of books on the entire Continent was well under 100,000. But by 1500, after only 45 years of the printed book, there were 9 million in circulation.