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十九世纪的美国铁路和商贸农业

Railroads and Commercial Agriculture in the Nineteenth-Century

到1850年，美国拥有大约9000英里的铁路；十年后，美国铁路变成了30,000多英里，超过了世界其他地区所有铁路的总和。

By 1850 the United States possessed roughly 9,000 miles of railroad track; ten years later it had over 30,000 miles, more than the rest of the world combined.

19世纪50年代，大部分新铁路都在阿巴拉契亚山以西建成，其中仅俄亥俄州和伊利诺伊州就超过了2000英里。

Much of the new construction during the 1850s occurred west of the Appalachian Mountains—over 2,000 miles in the states of Ohio and Illinois alone.

新铁路线的建成对经济的影响逐渐扩大。

The effect of the new railroad lines rippled outward through the economy.

铁路沿线的农民开始专业化种植作物并销售到遥远的地区。

Farmers along the tracks began to specialize in crops that they could market in distant locations.

他们用赚来的钱买来了原来只能在家中制造的商品。

With their profits they purchased manufactured goods that earlier they might have made at home.

在铁路修建到田纳西州之前，该州只生产25000蒲式耳（或640吨）小麦，价格不到50美分/蒲式耳。

Before the railroad reached Tennessee, the state produced about 25,000 bushels (or 640 tons) of wheat, which sold for less than 50 cents a bushel.

铁路开通后，这些县的人们终止了40万蒲式耳（超过10000吨）小麦，并以1美元/蒲式耳的价格出售。

Once the railroad came, farmers in the same counties grew 400,000 bushels (over 10,000 tons) and sold their crop at a dollar a bushel.

新的铁路网络改变了西方贸易的方向。

The new railroad networks shifted the direction of western trade.

1840年，大多数西北地区的谷物从密密西比河往南运送到繁忙的新奥尔良港口。

In 1840 most northwestern grain was shipped south down the Mississippi River to the bustling port of New Orleans.

但是密密西比河的低水位让汽船夏天送货很危险，而冬天结冰则让运送停滞。

But low water made steamboat travel hazardous in summer, and ice shut down traffic in winter.

如果猪油、牛脂和奶酪储存在新奥尔良高温而潮湿的仓库中，则很容易变质。

Products such as lard, tallow, and cheese quickly spoiled if stored in New Orleans’ hot and humid warehouses.

逐渐地，来自中西部的交通贸易沿着铁路线变成了从西到东运行。

Increasingly, traffic from the Midwest flowed west to east, over the new rail lines.

在1855年时，芝加哥用超过两千英里的铁路连接了中西部上游农场和纽约及其他东部城市，成为了该地区的交通枢纽。

Chicago became the region’s hub, linking the farms of the upper Midwest to New York and other eastern cities by more than 2,000 miles of track in 1855.

因此，尽管通过运河运送到新奥尔良的货物价值不断增加，南方在西部贸易中的整体份额却在快速下降。

Thus while the value of goods shipped by river to New Orleans continued to increase, the South’s overall share of western trade dropped dramatically.

国外市场对谷物需求的急剧增长也让东北和中西部地区的农民向商业化转型。

A sharp rise in demand for grain abroad also encouraged farmers in the Northeast and Midwest to become more commercially oriented.

1845年，小麦在纽约的价格是每蒲式耳1.08美元，1855年是2.46美元；玉米的价格也几乎翻番。

Wheat, which in 1845 commanded $1.08 a bushel in New York City, fetched $2.46 in 1855; in similar fashion the price of corn nearly doubled.

农民的应对措施是通过借钱购买更多的土地和投资设备提高生产力，来专门种植经济作物。

Farmers responded by specializing in cash crops, borrowing to purchase more land, and investing in equipment to increase productivity.

随着铁路线从芝加哥散开，农民开始在伊利诺伊州和爱荷华州购买开阔的草原土地，然后是爱荷华。他们把肥沃的深黑色土壤投入生产。

As railroad lines fanned out from Chicago, farmers began to acquire open prairie land in Illinois and then Iowa, putting the fertile, deep black soil into production.

商贸农业改变了这种非凡的没有树木的环境。

Commercial agriculture transformed this remarkable treeless environment.

对习惯东部林地的人们来说，数千平方英里的高草丛是一个惊人的景象。

To settlers accustomed to eastern woodlands, the thousands of square miles of tall grass were an awesome sight.

印度草、加拿大野生黑麦和本地的须芒草都长得一人多高。

Indian grass, Canada wild rye, and native big bluestem all grew higher than a person.

由于东部犁无法穿透茂密缠结的草原草根，最早的定居者沿着将森林与草原隔开的边界建立了农场。

Because eastern plows could not penetrate the densely tangled roots of prairie grass, the earliest settlers erected farms along the boundary separating the forest from the prairie.

然而，在1837年，约翰·迪尔（John Deere）申请了一种钢犁的专利，这种犁可以在草皮上切成薄片，而土壤不会粘在刀片上。

In 1837, however, John Deere patented a sharp-cutting steel plow that sliced through the sod without soil sticking to the blade.

赛勒斯·麦考密克（Cyrus McCormick）改良了机械收割机，让收割的小麦的效率增加了14倍。

Cyrus McCormick refined a mechanical reaper that harvested fourteen times more wheat with the same amount of labor.

到19世纪50年代，麦考密克每年销售1,000台收割机，但仍然无法满足需求，而Deere每年生产10,000台犁。

By the 1850s McCormick was selling 1,000 reapers a year and could not keep up with demand, while Deere turned out 10,000 plows annually.

新的商业化农业从根本上改变了中西部的景观和环境。

The new commercial farming fundamentally altered the mid-western landscape and the environment.

美洲原住民在该地区种植玉米已有多年历史，但从未有过像后来定居者那样大的土地，这些定居者后来成为农民，他们的盈余被运往东部。

Native Americans had grown corn in the region for years, but never in such large fields as did later settlers who became farmers, whose surpluses were shipped east.

草原农民还引进了不属于原来的生态系统的新作物，特别是小麦、水果和蔬菜。

Prairie farmers also introduced new crops that were not part of the earlier ecological system, notably wheat, along with fruits and vegetables.

本地的草被少量经济作物取代。

Native grasses were replaced by a small number of plants cultivated as commodities.

玉米单产最高，但主要用于饲养牲畜。

Corn had the best yields, but it was primarily used to feed livestock.

由于面包在美国和欧洲的饮食中起着关键作用，因此小麦成为主要的经济作物。

Because bread played a key role in the American and European diet, wheat became the major cash crop.

人工驯化过的草代替了牧场中的本地的草来制作干草。

Tame grasses replaced native grasses in pastures for making hay.

西部农民通过减少每年让大草原没有树木的大火来改变了这个地区的景观。

Western farmers altered the landscape by reducing the annual fires that had kept the prairie free from trees.

在没有这些大火的情况下，树木重新出现在没有耕种的土地上。如果不受干扰，这些树木最终会形成林地。

In the absence of these fires, trees reappeared on land not in cultivation and, if undisturbed, eventually formed woodlots.

早期的不间断景观被独立农场取代，每个农场都以精确的类棋盘格模式围起来。

The earlier unbroken landscape gave way to independent farms, each fenced off in a precise checkerboard pattern.

这是一个由动物、林地和农作物组成的人工生态系统，其大而均匀的布局使西部农场比东部不规则的农场效率更高。

It was an artificial ecosystem of animals, woodlots, and crops, whose large, uniform layout made western farms more efficient than the more-irregular farms in the East.

It can be inferred from paragraph 2 that the new railroads had which of the following effects on farm communities?

The word “bustling” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 3, in what way did the new rail networks change western trade?

Paragraph 4 supports the idea that the price of wheat more than doubled between 1845 and 1855 in part because

The word “erected” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Why does the author point out that “Indian grass, Canada wild rye, and native big bluestem all grew higher than a person”?

According to paragraph 5, the first settlers generally did not farm open prairie land because

According to paragraph 8, prairie farmers changed the landscape by doing all of the following EXCEPT:

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. The problems were not limited to routes of transport.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Railroads and Commercial Agriculture in the Nineteenth-Century By 1850 the United States possessed roughly 9,000 miles of railroad track; ten years later it had over 30,000 miles, more than the rest of the world combined. Much of the new construction during the 1850s occurred west of the Appalachian Mountains—over 2,000 miles in the states of Ohio and Illinois alone. The effect of the new railroad lines rippled outward through the economy. Farmers along the tracks began to specialize in crops that they could market in distant locations. With their profits they purchased manufactured goods that earlier they might have made at home. Before the railroad reached Tennessee, the state produced about 25,000 bushels (or 640 tons) of wheat, which sold for less than 50 cents a bushel. Once the railroad came, farmers in the same counties grew 400,000 bushels (over 10,000 tons) and sold their crop at a dollar a bushel. The new railroad networks shifted the direction of western trade.  In 1840 most northwestern grain was shipped south down the Mississippi River to the bustling port of New Orleans.  But low water made steamboat travel hazardous in summer, and ice shut down traffic in winter.  Products such as lard, tallow, and cheese quickly spoiled if stored in New Orleans’ hot and humid warehouses.  Increasingly, traffic from the Midwest flowed west to east, over the new rail lines. Chicago became the region’s hub, linking the farms of the upper Midwest to New York and other eastern cities by more than 2,000 miles of track in 1855. Thus while the value of goods shipped by river to New Orleans continued to increase, the South’s overall share of western trade dropped dramatically. A sharp rise in demand for grain abroad also encouraged farmers in the Northeast and Midwest to become more commercially oriented. Wheat, which in 1845 commanded $1.08 a bushel in New York City, fetched $2.46 in 1855; in similar fashion the price of corn nearly doubled. Farmers responded by specializing in cash crops, borrowing to purchase more land, and investing in equipment to increase productivity. As railroad lines fanned out from Chicago, farmers began to acquire open prairie land in Illinois and then Iowa, putting the fertile, deep black soil into production. Commercial agriculture transformed this remarkable treeless environment. To settlers accustomed to eastern woodlands, the thousands of square miles of tall grass were an awesome sight. Indian grass, Canada wild rye, and native big bluestem all grew higher than a person. Because eastern plows could not penetrate the densely tangled roots of prairie grass, the earliest settlers erected farms along the boundary separating the forest from the prairie. In 1837, however, John Deere patented a sharp-cutting steel plow that sliced through the sod without soil sticking to the blade. Cyrus McCormick refined a mechanical reaper that harvested fourteen times more wheat with the same amount of labor. By the 1850s McCormick was selling 1,000 reapers a year and could not keep up with demand, while Deere turned out 10,000 plows annually. The new commercial farming fundamentally altered the mid-western landscape and the environment. Native Americans had grown corn in the region for years, but never in such large fields as did later settlers who became farmers, whose surpluses were shipped east. Prairie farmers also introduced new crops that were not part of the earlier ecological system, notably wheat, along with fruits and vegetables. Native grasses were replaced by a small number of plants cultivated as commodities. Corn had the best yields, but it was primarily used to feed livestock. Because bread played a key role in the American and European diet, wheat became the major cash crop. Tame grasses replaced native grasses in pastures for making hay. Western farmers altered the landscape by reducing the annual fires that had kept the prairie free from trees. In the absence of these fires, trees reappeared on land not in cultivation and, if undisturbed, eventually formed woodlots. The earlier unbroken landscape gave way to independent farms, each fenced off in a precise checkerboard pattern. It was an artificial ecosystem of animals, woodlots, and crops, whose large, uniform layout made western farms more efficient than the more-irregular farms in the East.