『新东方在线托福阅读』为托福考生准备了ETS托福TPO/Official 53 Passage 1阅读练习：The word “invariably ” in the passage is closest in meaning to真题题目及答案解析，TPO/Official 53 Passage 1阅读原文范文音频翻译

托福TPO/Official 53 Passage 1阅读原文The word “invariably ” in the passage is closest in meaning to题目答案及解析-新东方托福官方网校手机版

虽然读写能力是在史前世界的几个地方分别出现的，但书写的最早证据是古代美索不达米亚泥板上的苏美尔楔形文字，根据考古探查工作揭示，它起源于商业活动的会计实践。

Although literacy appeared independently in several parts of the prehistoric world, the earliest evidence of writing is the cuneiform Sumerian script on the clay tablets of ancient Mesopotamia, which, archaeological detective work has revealed, had its origins in the accounting practices of commercial activity.

研究人员证明，没有文化的人为了记录他们生产和交换的商品，创造了一种使用粘土代币作为其产品象征的记账系统。

Researchers demonstrated that preliterate people, to keep track of the goods they produced and exchanged, created a system of accounting using clay tokens as symbolic representations of their products.

在数千年的时间里，这些符号经历了几个抽象阶段，直到它们变成了粘土上的楔形符号，可被认出是文字。

Over many thousands of years, the symbols evolved through several stages of abstraction until they became wedge-shaped (cuneiform) signs on clay tablets, recognizable as writing.

最初的代币(约公元前8500年)是三维实体形状——小球体、圆锥体、圆盘和圆柱体。

The original tokens (circa 8500 B.C.E.) were three-dimensional solid shapes—tiny spheres, cones, disks, and cylinders.

例如，6个单位的谷物和8头牲畜的债务可以用6个圆锥形和8个圆柱形的代币来表示。

A debt of six units of grain and eight head of livestock, for example, might have been represented by six conical and eight cylindrical tokens.

为了把成批的代币放在一起，人们发明了一种新方法（大约在公元前3250年），把代币封在粘土信封里，当需要偿还债务时，粘土信封就会被打开并计数。

To keep batches of tokens together, an innovation was introduced (circa 3250 B.C.E.) whereby they were sealed inside clay envelopes that could be broken open and counted when it came time for a debt to be repaid.

但是，由于信封里的东西很容易被遗忘，所以在密封之前，三维代币的二维表现就被印在了信封的表面上。

But because the contents of the envelopes could easily be forgotten, two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional tokens were impressed into the surface of the envelopes before they were sealed.

最终，拥有两套等价的符号——里面的代币和外面的标记——看起来有些冗余，所以代币被淘汰了（大约在公元前3250-3100年），只保留了带有二维符号的固体粘土片。

Eventually, having two sets of equivalent symbols—the internal tokens and external markings—came to seem redundant, so the tokens were eliminated (circa 3250–3100 B.C.E.), and only solid clay tablets with two-dimensional symbols were retained.

随着时间的推移，这些符号变得越来越多，越来越多样化，越来越抽象，它们不仅仅代表商品贸易，最终演变成了楔形文字。

Over time, the symbols became more numerous, varied, and abstract and came to represent more than trade commodities, evolving eventually into cuneiform writing.

象征符号的演变首先反映在考古记录中，标志本身的复杂性日益增加。

The evolution of the symbolism is reflected in the archaeological record first of all by the increasing complexity of the tokens themselves.

最早的代币大约在10000年到6000年前，只有最简单的几何形状。

The earliest tokens, dating from about 10,000 to 6,000 years ago, were of only the simplest geometric shapes.

大约在公元前3500年，更复杂的代币开始被普遍使用，包括许多像小型工具、家具、水果和人类这样的自然形态。

But about 3500 B.C.E., more complex tokens came into common usage, including many naturalistic forms shaped like miniature tools, furniture, fruit, and humans.

更早的、简单的代币是为农产品的计数服务的，而复杂的代币用于制成品，如面包、油、香水、羊毛、绳子，和工坊生产的物品，如金属、手镯、布料、服装、垫子、家具、工具、和各种各样的石头和陶瓷器皿。

The earlier, plain tokens were counters for agricultural products, whereas the complex ones stood for finished products, such as bread, oil, perfume, wool, and rope, and for items produced in workshops, such as metal, bracelets, types of cloth, garments, mats, pieces of furniture, tools, and a variety of stone and pottery vessels.

在粘土片上标记的符号同样也从简单的楔形、圆形、椭圆形和基于简单代币的三角形演变为源自复杂代币的象形文字。

The signs marked on clay tablets likewise evolved from simple wedges, circles, ovals, and triangles based on the plain tokens to pictographs derived from the complex tokens.

在这一证据被发现之前，研究人员认为书写的发明者是知识精英。

Before this evidence came to light, the inventors of writing were assumed by researchers to have been an intellectual elite.

例如，有些人假设，当祭司种姓的成员对书写符号达成一致时，文字就出现了。

Some, for example, hypothesized that writing emerged when members of the priestly caste agreed among themselves on written signs.

但是简单代币和早期农民的关联、复杂代币和早期工匠的关联、再加上代币-信封的记账系统总是只代表小规模的交易，这些都是文字创造者的社会地位相对低下的证据。

But the association of the plain tokens with the first farmers and of the complex tokens with the first artisans—and the fact that the token-and-envelope accounting system invariably represented only small-scale transactions—testifies to the relatively modest social status of the creators of writing.

不仅是读写能力，还有计算能力（定量概念的表示）。

And not only of literacy, but numeracy (the representation of quantitative concepts) as well.

代币的证据进一步证实，数学起源于人们想要记录羊群和其他物品的愿望。

The evidence of the tokens provides further confirmation that mathematics originated in people’s desire to keep records of flocks and other goods.

另一个意义重大的进步发生在公元前3100年左右，当时苏美尔人的会计师将基于代币的符号扩展到包含第一个实数。

Another immensely significant step occurred around 3100 B.C.E., when Sumerian accountants extended the token-based signs to include the first real numerals.

当时苏美尔人的会计师将基于代币的符号扩展到包含第一个实数。

when Sumerian accountants extended the token-based signs to include the first real numerals.

以前，谷物的单位是由直接的一一对应来表示的——通过重复一单位谷物的代币或符号所需的次数来实现。

Previously, units of grain had been represented by direct one-to-one correspondence—by repeating the token or symbol for a unit of grain the required number of times.

然而，会计师们设计了不同于商品符号的数字符号，这样，十八个单位的谷物可以表现为在一个谷物符号前面加上一个表示“18”的符号。

The accountants, however, devised numeral signs distinct from commodity signs, so that eighteen units of grain could be indicated by preceding a single grain symbol with a symbol denoting “18.”

他们发明的抽象数字和抽象计数是数学历史上最具革命性的进步之一。

Their invention of abstract numerals and abstract counting was one of the most revolutionary advances in the history of mathematics.

促成这一突破的匿名会计师的社会地位如何?

What was the social status of the anonymous accountants who produced this breakthrough?

苏美尔庙宇遗址中出土的数量巨大的粘土片显示了抄写文字方面的社会分化，实际上是一群等级较低的制表人在从事单调的商品清点工作。

The immense volume of clay tablets unearthed in the ruins of the Sumerian temples where the accounts were kept suggests a social differentiation within the scribal class, with a virtual army of lower-ranking tabulators performing the monotonous job of tallying commodities.

我们只能推测出真正数字的发明者在抄写阶层中的地位有多高或多低，但显而易见的是，这种节省劳力的发明是那些地位较低的人的智慧结晶，他们的苦工因此得以减轻。

We can only speculate as to how high or low the inventors of true numerals were in the scribal hierarchy, but it stands to reason that this laborsaving innovation would have been the brainchild of the lower-ranking types whose drudgery it eased.

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 2 as true of clay envelopes EXCEPT:

According to paragraph 2, the first two-dimensional symbols were

According to paragraph 2, why were tokens eliminated?

Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the difference between earlier tokens and later tokens?

The word “likewise” in the passage is closest in meaning to

The word “Some” in the passage refers to

In paragraph 4, why does the author mention the association of tokens with farmers and artisans?

The word “invariably ” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 5, all of the following statements about the development of numerals are true EXCEPT:

The word “unearthed” in the passage is closest in meaning to

The word “brainchild” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Such a system was clearly awkward for large inventories.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Evidence of the Earliest Writing Although literacy appeared independently in several parts of the prehistoric world, the earliest evidence of writing is the cuneiform Sumerian script on the clay tablets of ancient Mesopotamia, which, archaeological detective work has revealed, had its origins in the accounting practices of commercial activity. Researchers demonstrated that preliterate people, to keep track of the goods they produced and exchanged, created a system of accounting using clay tokens as symbolic representations of their products. Over many thousands of years, the symbols evolved through several stages of abstraction until they became wedge-shaped (cuneiform) signs on clay tablets, recognizable as writing. The original tokens (circa 8500 B.C.E.) were three-dimensional solid shapes—tiny spheres, cones, disks, and cylinders. A debt of six units of grain and eight head of livestock, for example, might have been represented by six conical and eight cylindrical tokens. To keep batches of tokens together, an innovation was introduced (circa 3250 B.C.E.) whereby they were sealed inside clay envelopes that could be broken open and counted when it came time for a debt to be repaid. But because the contents of the envelopes could easily be forgotten, two-dimensional representations of the three-dimensional tokens were impressed into the surface of the envelopes before they were sealed. Eventually, having two sets of equivalent symbols—the internal tokens and external markings—came to seem redundant, so the tokens were eliminated (circa 3250–3100 B.C.E.), and only solid clay tablets with two-dimensional symbols were retained. Over time, the symbols became more numerous, varied, and abstract and came to represent more than trade commodities, evolving eventually into cuneiform writing. The evolution of the symbolism is reflected in the archaeological record first of all by the increasing complexity of the tokens themselves. The earliest tokens, dating from about 10,000 to 6,000 years ago, were of only the simplest geometric shapes. But about 3500 B.C.E., more complex tokens came into common usage, including many naturalistic forms shaped like miniature tools, furniture, fruit, and humans. The earlier, plain tokens were counters for agricultural products, whereas the complex ones stood for finished products, such as bread, oil, perfume, wool, and rope, and for items produced in workshops, such as metal, bracelets, types of cloth, garments, mats, pieces of furniture, tools, and a variety of stone and pottery vessels. The signs marked on clay tablets likewise evolved from simple wedges, circles, ovals, and triangles based on the plain tokens to pictographs derived from the complex tokens. Before this evidence came to light, the inventors of writing were assumed by researchers to have been an intellectual elite. Some, for example, hypothesized that writing emerged when members of the priestly caste agreed among themselves on written signs. But the association of the plain tokens with the first farmers and of the complex tokens with the first artisans—and the fact that the token-and-envelope accounting system invariably represented only small-scale transactions—testifies to the relatively modest social status of the creators of writing. And not only of literacy, but numeracy (the representation of quantitative concepts) as well. The evidence of the tokens provides further confirmation that mathematics originated in people’s desire to keep records of flocks and other goods. Another immensely significant step occurred around 3100 B.C. E., when Sumerian accountants extended the token-based signs to include the first real numerals.  Previously, units of grain had been represented by direct one-to-one correspondence—by repeating the token or symbol for a unit of grain the required number of times.  The accountants, however, devised numeral signs distinct from commodity signs, so that eighteen units of grain could be indicated by preceding a single grain symbol with a symbol denoting “18.”  Their invention of abstract numerals and abstract counting was one of the most revolutionary advances in the history of mathematics.  What was the social status of the anonymous accountants who produced this breakthrough? The immense volume of clay tablets unearthed in the ruins of the Sumerian temples where the accounts were kept suggests a social differentiation within the scribal class, with a virtual army of lower-ranking tabulators performing the monotonous job of tallying commodities. We can only speculate as to how high or low the inventors of true numerals were in the scribal hierarchy, but it stands to reason that this laborsaving innovation would have been the brainchild of the lower-ranking types whose drudgery it eased.