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因为几乎没有具体的证据可以借鉴，人们在试图描述戏剧起源的时候必须主要依靠猜测。

In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw.

一种最为广泛接受的理论是把戏剧看作是神话和宗教仪式的产物，该理论被19世纪晚期和20世纪早期的人类学家所支持。

The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual.

可以简单概括下人类学家所理解的这种过程：

The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly.

在社会发展的早期阶段，人们逐渐意识到有一种力量在影响甚至控制着他们的食物来源以及幸福。

During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being.

在几乎完全不了解是什么自然原因的情况下，整个社会把他们想要和不想要发生的事情都归因于超自然或者魔法力量，并且寻找了一些方法来取悦这些力量。

Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces.

在认识到人们所执行的某些动作与其期望的结果之间存在明显的联系后，他们会重复、细化这些动作并将其形式化为固定的典礼或仪式。

Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines, and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals.

那么故事（神话）可能就从仪式当中发展起来了。

Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual.

这些神话当中经常包含一些超自然力量的代表，宗教仪式庆祝或希望影响这些超自然力量的代表。

Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence.

在这些仪式或伴随的庆典当中，表演者可能会穿上戏服来代表神话角色或超自然力量。

Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations.

当一个民族心智变得开化之后，它对于超自然力量和因果关系的理解可能会发生改变。

As a people becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change.

所以，该民族可能会放弃或调整一些仪式。

As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites.

但是从仪式当中成长起来的神话可能依然会作为该群体的口头传承的一部分，甚至会在这些仪式之外被表演出来。

But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites.

当上述情况发生的时候，戏剧作为自发的活动已经迈出了自己的第一步。后来戏剧的娱乐或者美学价值可能会逐渐取代了原来的神话和社会价值。

When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns.

尽管戏剧源自于宗教的理论一直是最为流行的，这绝对不是唯一一个关于戏剧形成的理论。

Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being.

Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative.

在该理论之下，讲故事和听故事被看做是人类的基本乐趣来源。

Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures.

因此，通过叙述者的哑剧和模仿以及最终由不同的人承担的每个角色，实现了对某个事件“狩猎，战斗或其他事迹”的回顾。

Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person.

一个紧密相关的理论认为剧院是从主要是从无声的、有节奏的或体操的舞蹈中发展出来的，也可能是从模仿动物的声音和声音而演变而来的。

A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that are primarily pantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds.

对表演者的精湛技艺和优雅的钦佩被视为将这些活动精心制作完整的戏剧表演的动力。

Admiration for the performer’s skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realized theatrical performances.

除了探索戏剧的可能先例之外，学者们还对导致人们发展戏剧的动机进行了理论分析。

In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater.

戏剧为什么会发展，为什么它在停止它作为仪式的功能后得到重视？大多数答案都落脚在人的思维和基本人类需求的理论上。

Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs.

亚里士多德（Aristotle）在公元前四世纪提出的一种观点认为人类是天然的模仿者，因为人们喜欢模仿人、事物和行为并喜欢观看这种模仿。

One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations.

另一个在20世纪中提出的理论表明，人类拥有幻想的天赋，通过幻想，他们试图将现实重塑成比日常生活中遇到的形式更令人满意的状态。

Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life.

因此，幻想或虚构（其中戏剧是一种形式）使人们可以客观化他们的焦虑和恐惧来面对它们，并实现他们在虚构中的希望（如果不是在现实中实现的话）。

Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact.

那么，戏剧就是一种人们来定义这个世界或者从不满现实中逃离出来的工具。

The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and world or escape from unpleasant realities.

但是，人的模仿天性和对幻想的嗜好都无法独自形成一个独立的戏剧。

But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater.

因此，我们还需要更多的解释。

Therefore, additional explanations are needed.

一个必要的条件似乎是对人类问题的超然的看法。

One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems.

比如说，这种情况的一个标志是戏剧形式的出现。因为戏剧需要有足够超然视角，才能把某些离经叛道的问题看作是荒谬的而不是真正对社会的真正威胁。

For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group.

另外一个有助于独立戏剧发展的条件是美学意识的出现。

Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense.

比如说，有些早期社会不再把某些特定的宗教仪式看作是自己的福祉的必要条件；虽然如此，他们还是把其中成长起来的神话保留成了口耳相传的内容的一部分，并且会因为这些故事的艺术品质而不是宗教上的有用性欣赏这些神话。

For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them; nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness.

The word “championed” in the passage is closest in meaning to

The word “attributes” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 1, theories of the origins of theater

According to paragraph 1, why did some societies develop and repeat ceremonial actions?

The word “this” in the passage refers to

The word “autonomous” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 2, what may cause societies to abandon certain rites?

All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 5 as possible reasons that led societies to develop theater EXCEPT:

Which of the following best describes the organization of paragraph 5?

The word “penchant” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Why does the author mention “comedy”?

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. To enhance their listeners’ enjoyment, storytellers continually make their stories more engaging and memorable.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The Origins of Theater In seeking to describe the origins of theater, one must rely primarily on speculation, since there is little concrete evidence on which to draw. The most widely accepted theory, championed by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, envisions theater as emerging out of myth and ritual. The process perceived by these anthropologists may be summarized briefly. During the early stages of its development, a society becomes aware of forces that appear to influence or control its food supply and well-being. Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes both desirable and undesirable occurrences to supernatural or magical forces, and it searches for means to win the favor of these forces. Perceiving an apparent connection between certain actions performed by the group and the result it desires, the group repeats, refines, and formalizes those actions into fixed ceremonies, or rituals. Stories (myths) may then grow up around a ritual. Frequently the myths include representatives of those supernatural forces that the rites celebrate or hope to influence. Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythical characters or supernatural forces in the rituals or in accompanying celebrations. As a people becomes more sophisticated, its conceptions of supernatural forces and causal relationships may change. As a result, it may abandon or modify some rites. But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue as part of the group’s oral tradition and may even come to be acted out under conditions divorced from these rites. When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as an autonomous activity, and thereafter entertainment and aesthetic values may gradually replace the former mystical and socially efficacious concerns.  Although origin in ritual has long been the most popular, it is by no means the only theory about how the theater came into being.  Storytelling has been proposed as one alternative.  Under this theory, relating and listening to stories are seen as fundamental human pleasures.  Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) is elaborated through the narrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each role being assumed by a different person. A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that are primarily pantomimic, rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animal noises and sounds. Admiration for the performer’s skill, virtuosity, and grace are seen as motivation for elaborating the activities into fully realized theatrical performances. In addition to exploring the possible antecedents of theater, scholars have also theorized about the motives that led people to develop theater. Why did theater develop, and why was it valued after it ceased to fulfill the function of ritual? Most answers fall back on the theories about the human mind and basic human needs. One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans as naturally imitative—as taking pleasure in imitating persons, things, and actions and in seeing such imitations. Another, advanced in the twentieth century, suggests that humans have a gift for fantasy, through which they seek to reshape reality into more satisfying forms than those encountered in daily life. Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people to objectify their anxieties and fears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes in fiction if not fact. The theater, then, is one tool whereby people define and world or escape from unpleasant realities. But neither the human imitative instinct nor a penchant for fantasy by itself leads to an autonomous theater. Therefore, additional explanations are needed. One necessary condition seems to be a somewhat detached view of human problems. For example, one sign of this condition is the appearance of the comic vision, since comedy requires sufficient detachment to view some deviations from social norms as ridiculous rather than as serious threats to the welfare of the entire group. Another condition that contributes to the development of autonomous theater is the emergence of the aesthetic sense. For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain rites essential to their well-being and abandoned them; nevertheless, they retained as parts of their oral tradition the myths that had grown up around the rites and admired them for their artistic qualities rather than for their religious usefulness.