『新东方在线托福阅读』为托福考生准备了ETS托福TPO/Official 4 Passage 2阅读练习：The word “principal” in the passage is closest in meaning to真题题目及答案解析，TPO/Official 4 Passage 2阅读原文范文音频翻译

托福TPO/Official 4 Passage 2阅读原文The word “principal” in the passage is closest in meaning to题目答案及解析-新东方托福官方网校手机版

人们能追寻到的最早的艺术痕迹是串珠和雕刻，之后是绘画，这些遗址最早可以追溯到旧石器时代晚期。

The earliest discovered traces of art are beads and carvings, and then paintings, from sites dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period.

我们也许认为早期的艺术创作是粗糙的，但西班牙和法国南部的洞穴绘画显示出了卓越的技巧。

We might expect that early artistic efforts would be crude, but the cave paintings of Spain and southern France show a marked degree of skill.

同样的情况也发生在挖掘自非洲南部的石板上的自然主义绘画。

So do the naturalistic paintings on slabs of stone excavated in southern Africa.

有些石版画似乎最早可以追溯到28000年之前，这表明非洲的绘画和欧洲绘画同样古老。

Some of those slabs appear to have been painted as much as 28,000 years ago, which suggests that painting in Africa is as old as painting in Europe.

But painting may be even older than that.

早期的澳大利亚人至少30000年前开始在岩洞里的墙壁上或悬崖峭壁上作画，甚至可以追溯到60000年前。

The early Australians may have painted on the walls of rock shelters and cliff faces at least 30,000 years ago, and maybe as much as 60,000 years ago.

研究学者彼得•乌克和安德烈•罗森菲尔德在欧洲的洞穴中发现了三个主要的绘画遗址：（1）在明显有人居住的岩洞里和洞口 （2）就在离人居住的岩洞不远处的长廊处 （3）在洞穴的最深处，这么难以企及的深度被认为是有些神秘的宗教活动在此进行。

The researchers Peter Ucko and Andrée Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there.

这些画的绝大多数主题都是关于动物。

The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals.

这些画通常位于裸露的墙体上，没有任何背景或环境装饰。

The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings.

也许，正如许多当代人一样，旧石器时期晚期的男人和女人相信人物肖像会导致死亡或受伤，如果他们真的这么认为，那也就能解释为什么人物形象极少在洞穴艺术中出现。

Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art.

他们主要画动物的另一个解释是这些人想要提升捕猎的运气。

Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting.

画中动物身上有一些缺口，也许是被扔到绘画上的矛头造成的，这些证据证实了上述理论。

This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings.

但如果提升运气是他们绘画的主要动机，就很难解释为什么只有几个地方显示有矛头的痕迹。

But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared.

也许这些绘画的灵感是来自于需要增加动物的供给。

Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals.

洞穴艺术似乎在旧石器时代末期达到顶峰，也就是当兽群逐渐减少的时候。

Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing.

学者帕特丽夏•赖斯和安•派特森研究结论能更清晰的展示出法国南部洞穴绘画的特殊象征意义。

The particular symbolic significance of the cave paintings in southwestern France is more explicitly revealed, perhaps, by the results of a study conducted by researchers Patricia Rice and Ann Paterson.

他们展示的数据表明，洞穴绘画中描绘的动物大多数都是绘画者喜欢的肉类或者一些材料，比如兽皮。

The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides.

比如，野牛（牛科动物）和野马被画到的频率明显比我们预期的一两次要更高，也许是因为他们比周围环境中的其他动物更大更重（肉更多）。

For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment.

另外，这些绘画大多会描绘让人感到恐惧的动物，他们的体型大小，速度， 自然武器就像象牙和号角，还有那些难以预测的行为等。

In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior.

也就是猛犸象、野牛和马要比鹿和驯鹿画的更多。

That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer.

因此，艺术和捕猎在旧石器时期经济中的重要性是相关的，这一点和绘画是一致的。

Thus, the paintings are consistent with the idea that the art is related to the importance of hunting in the economy of Upper Paleolithic people.

和这个观点一致的是：根据调查显示，旧石器时代之后的文化时期的艺术也展示了人们是如何获取食物的。

Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food.

但在那个时期，当获取食物不再依赖于捕食大型动物（因为他们已经接近灭绝），艺术创作也开始不再关注于对动物的描绘。

But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals.

旧石器时代的艺术不再局限于洞穴绘画。

Upper Paleolithic art was not confined to cave paintings.

许多矛杆和相似的物品都装饰着动物图案。

Many shafts of spears and similar objects were decorated with figures of animals.

人类学家亚历山大•马斯哈克对旧石器时期末期的雕刻有一个有趣的解释。

The anthropologist Alexander Marshack has an interesting interpretation of some of the engravings made during the Upper Paleolithic.

他相信，追溯到30000BC前，猎人可能使用过一种标记系统，这种系统雕刻在骨头和石头上去记录月相。

He believes that as far back as 30,000 B.C., hunters may have used a system of notation, engraved on bone and stone, to mark phases of the Moon.

如果这是真的，就意味这旧石器时代人们有复杂的思想并且有意识的注意到周围的环境。

If this is true, it would mean that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and were consciously aware of their environment.

除了其他艺术以外，我们同样在旧石器时代遗址中发现了展示夸张的女性形象的雕塑。

In addition to other artworks, figurines representing the human female in exaggerated form have also been found at Upper Paleolithic sites.

这意味着这些雕塑是一种完美的形象或者表达了人们对于多生育的渴望。

It has been suggested that these figurines were an ideal type or an expression of a desire for fertility.

The word “marked” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about painting in Europe?

The word “principal” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 2, what makes some researchers think that certain cave paintings were connected with magical-religious activities?

The word “trappings” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

According to paragraph 3, scholars explained chips in the painted figures of animals by proposing that

Why does the author mention that Upper Paleolithic cave art seemed to have “reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing”?

According to paragraph 4, scholars believe that wild cattle, horses, and mammoths are the animals most frequently portrayed in cave paintings for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:

According to paragraph 4, which of the following may best represent the attitude of hunters toward deer and reindeer in the Upper Paleolithic period?

According to paragraph 4, what change is evident in the art of the period following the Upper Paleolithic?

According to paragraph 5, which of the following has been used as evidence to suggest that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and conscious awareness of their environment?

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Therefore, if the paintings were connected with hunting, some other explanation is needed.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Cave Art in Europe The earliest discovered traces of art are beads and carvings, and then paintings, from sites dating back to the Upper Paleolithic period. We might expect that early artistic efforts would be crude, but the cave paintings of Spain and southern France show a marked degree of skill. So do the naturalistic paintings on slabs of stone excavated in southern Africa. Some of those slabs appear to have been painted as much as 28,000 years ago, which suggests that painting in Africa is as old as painting in Europe. But painting may be even older than that. The early Australians may have painted on the walls of rock shelters and cliff faces at least 30,000 years ago, and maybe as much as 60,000 years ago. The researchers Peter Ucko and Andrée Rosenfeld identified three principal locations of paintings in the caves of western Europe: (1) in obviously inhabited rock shelters and cave entrances; (2) in galleries immediately off the inhabited areas of caves; and (3) in the inner reaches of caves, whose difficulty of access has been interpreted by some as a sign that magical-religious activities were performed there. The subjects of the paintings are mostly animals. The paintings rest on bare walls, with no backdrops or environmental trappings. Perhaps, like many contemporary peoples, Upper Paleolithic men and women believed that the drawing of a human image could cause death or injury, and if that were indeed their belief, it might explain why human figures are rarely depicted in cave art. Another explanation for the focus on animals might be that these people sought to improve their luck at hunting.  This theory is suggested by evidence of chips in the painted figures, perhaps made by spears thrown at the drawings.  But if improving their hunting luck was the chief motivation for the paintings, it is difficult to explain why only a few show signs of having been speared.  Perhaps the paintings were inspired by the need to increase the supply of animals. Cave art seems to have reached a peak toward the end of the Upper Paleolithic period, when the herds of game were decreasing.  The particular symbolic significance of the cave paintings in southwestern France is more explicitly revealed, perhaps, by the results of a study conducted by researchers Patricia Rice and Ann Paterson. The data they present suggest that the animals portrayed in the cave paintings were mostly the ones that the painters preferred for meat and for materials such as hides. For example, wild cattle (bovines) and horses are portrayed more often than we would expect by chance, probably because they were larger and heavier (meatier) than other animals in the environment. In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters may have feared the most because of their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and the unpredictability of their behavior. That is, mammoths, bovines, and horses are portrayed more often than deer and reindeer. Thus, the paintings are consistent with the idea that the art is related to the importance of hunting in the economy of Upper Paleolithic people. Consistent with this idea, according to the investigators, is the fact that the art of the cultural period that followed the Upper Paleolithic also seems to reflect how people got their food. But in that period, when getting food no longer depended on hunting large game animals (because they were becoming extinct), the art ceased to focus on portrayals of animals. Upper Paleolithic art was not confined to cave paintings. Many shafts of spears and similar objects were decorated with figures of animals. The anthropologist Alexander Marshack has an interesting interpretation of some of the engravings made during the Upper Paleolithic. He believes that as far back as 30,000 B.C., hunters may have used a system of notation, engraved on bone and stone, to mark phases of the Moon. If this is true, it would mean that Upper Paleolithic people were capable of complex thought and were consciously aware of their environment. In addition to other artworks, figurines representing the human female in exaggerated form have also been found at Upper Paleolithic sites. It has been suggested that these figurines were an ideal type or an expression of a desire for fertility.