『新东方在线托福阅读』为托福考生准备了ETS托福TPO/Official 13 Passage 3阅读练习：Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a problem in using the technique of direct observation?真题题目及答案解析，TPO/Official 13 Passage 3阅读原文范文音频翻译

托福TPO/Official 13 Passage 3阅读原文Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a problem in using the technique of direct observation?题目答案及解析-新东方托福官方网校手机版

在对婴儿感知能力的研究中，许多技术被用来确定婴儿对各种刺激的反应。

In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants’ responses to various stimuli.

由于他们不能用语言表达或填写调查问卷，自然观察的间接方法被用作决定婴儿能看到、听到、感觉到什么的主要手段。

Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth.

每一种方法都将婴儿在刺激前的状态与刺激期间或刺激后的状态进行比较。

Each of these methods compares an infant’s state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus.

两种测量方法之间的差异为研究者提供了对刺激反应的水平和持续时间的指示。

The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus.

例如，如果某种均匀移动的模式通过婴儿（新生儿）的视野，眼睛的重复运动就会发生。

For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur.

这些眼球运动的发生提供了证据，表明新生儿在某种程度上可以感知到移动模式。

The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn.

同样的，婴儿运动活动的总体水平的变化——转头、眨眼、哭泣等等——已经被研究人员用作婴儿感知能力的视觉指标。

Similarly, changes in the infant’s general level of motor activity — turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant’s perceptual abilities.

Such techniques, however, have limitations.

首先，观察结果可能是不可靠的，因为两个或两个以上的观察人可能不同意发生了特定的反应，或不同意反应的程度。

First, the observation may be unreliable in that two or more observers may not agree that the particular response occurred, or to what degree it occurred.

Second, responses are difficult to quantify.

婴儿的快速而分散的运动常常使准确记录反应的数量变得困难。

Often the rapid and diffuse movements of the infant make it difficult to get an accurate record of the number of responses.

第三，也是最有力的限制是，不可能确定婴儿的反应是由于出现的刺激还是从没有刺激到刺激的变化。

The third, and most potent, limitation is that it is not possible to be certain that the infant’s response was due to the stimulus presented or to a change from no stimulus to a stimulus.

婴儿对刺激的反应可能与研究者发现的不同。

The infant may be responding to aspects of the stimulus different than those identified by the investigator.

因此，当观察性评估被用作研究婴儿感知能力的技术时，必须注意不要从数据中过度概括，或依赖一两个研究作为婴儿特定感知能力的结论性证据。

Therefore, when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant.

观察性评估技术已经变得更加复杂，减少了刚刚提出的限制。

Observational assessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented.

胶片分析婴儿的反应，心脏和呼吸速率监测器，和非营养性吸吮装置是用来了解婴儿感知的有效工具。

Film analysis of the infant’s responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception.

影像分析允许研究人员仔细以慢动作一遍又一遍研究婴儿的反应。

Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant’s responses over and over and in slow motion.

可以对婴儿在两次刺激之间注意力的长度和频率进行精确测量。

Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant’s attention between two stimuli.

心脏和呼吸监测器为研究者提供新的刺激出现时心跳或呼吸的次数。

Heart and respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or breaths taken when a new stimulus is presented.

数字上的增长被用作对新刺激兴趣增强的量化指标。

Numerical increases are used as quantifiable indicators of heightened interest in the new stimulus.

1969年，研究人员首次将非营养性吸吮的增加作为一种评估指标。

Increases in nonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969.

他们设计了一种将婴儿的奶嘴与计数装置相连的装置。

They devised an apparatus that connected a baby’s pacifier on to a counting device.

当刺激出现时，婴儿吮吸行为的变化被记录下来。

As stimuli were presented, changes in the infant’s sucking behavior were recorded.

吮吸次数的增加被用来作为婴儿对某一特定视觉显示的注意或偏好的指标。

Increases in the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant’s attention to or preference for a given visual display.

另外两种研究婴儿感知的技术也开始流行起来。

Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue.

第一种是“习惯-反习惯”技术，在这种技术中，婴儿反复接受单一刺激，直到观察到的任何参加行为都出现明显的下降（习惯化）。

The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed.

在这一点上，一个新的刺激被提出，任何恢复（反习惯）的反应被记录下来。

At that point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsiveness is recorded.

如果婴儿不能去适应新的刺激，并且继续表现出对新刺激的适应，那么就假定婴儿不能感知到不同的新刺激。

If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to show habituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable to perceive the new stimulus as different.

习惯-反习惯范式在婴儿听觉和嗅觉研究中应用最为广泛。

The habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactory perception in infants.

第二种技术依赖于诱发电位，这是一种脑电反应，可能与特定的刺激有关，因为它们的来源（在特定位置）。

The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulus because of where they originate.

脑电模式的变化表明，刺激正通过婴儿的中枢神经系统，引起某种形式的反应。

Changes in the electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is getting through to the infant’s central nervous system and eliciting some form of response.

以上的每一种技术都为研究者提供了证据，证明婴儿能够察觉或辨别不同的刺激。

Each of the preceding techniques provides the researcher with evidence that the infant can detect or discriminate between stimuli.

通过这些复杂的观察评估和电生理测量，我们知道出生几天的新生儿比之前预想的更有洞察力。

With these sophisticated observational assessment and electro physiological measures, we know that the neonate of only a few days is far more perceptive than previously suspected.

然而，这些测量只是婴儿感知能力的“间接”指标。

However, these measures are only “indirect” indicators of the infant’s perceptual abilities.

Paragraph 1 indicates that researchers use indirect methods primarily to observe the

Why does the author mention “repetitive following movements of the eye”?

Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 2 as a problem in using the technique of direct observation?

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

What is the author’s primary purpose in paragraph 3?

Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following as indications of an infant’s heightened interest in a new stimulus EXCEPT an increase in

According to paragraph 4, which of the following leads to the conclusion that infants are able to differentiate between stimuli in a habituation-dishabituation study?

In paragraph 4, what does the author suggest about the way an infant’s brain perceives stimuli?

Paragraph 5 indicates that researchers who used the techniques described in the passage discovered that

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. The repetition allows researchers to observe the infant’s behavior until they reach agreement about the presence and the degree of the infant’s response.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Methods of Studying Infant Perception In the study of perceptual abilities of infants, a number of techniques are used to determine infants’ responses to various stimuli. Because they cannot verbalize or fill out questionnaires, indirect techniques of naturalistic observation are used as the primary means of determining what infants can see, hear, feel, and so forth. Each of these methods compares an infant’s state prior to the introduction of a stimulus with its state during or immediately following the stimulus. The difference between the two measures provides the researcher with an indication of the level and duration of the response to the stimulus. For example, if a uniformly moving pattern of some sort is passed across the visual field of a neonate (newborn), repetitive following movements of the eye occur. The occurrence of these eye movements provides evidence that the moving pattern is perceived at some level by the newborn. Similarly, changes in the infant’s general level of motor activity — turning the head, blinking the eyes, crying, and so forth — have been used by researchers as visual indicators of the infant’s perceptual abilities. Such techniques, however, have limitations. First, the observation may be unreliable in that two or more observers may not agree that the particular response occurred, or to what degree it occurred. Second, responses are difficult to quantify. Often the rapid and diffuse movements of the infant make it difficult to get an accurate record of the number of responses. The third, and most potent, limitation is that it is not possible to be certain that the infant’s response was due to the stimulus presented or to a change from no stimulus to a stimulus. The infant may be responding to aspects of the stimulus different than those identified by the investigator. Therefore, when observational assessment is used as a technique for studying infant perceptual abilities, care must be taken not to overgeneralize from the data or to rely on one or two studies as conclusive evidence of a particular perceptual ability of the infant. Observational assessment techniques have become much more sophisticated, reducing the limitations just presented.  Film analysis of the infant’s responses, heart and respiration rate monitors, and nonnutritive sucking devices are used as effective tools in understanding infant perception. Film analysis permits researchers to carefully study the infant’s responses over and over and in slow motion.  Precise measurements can be made of the length and frequency of the infant’s attention between two stimuli.  Heart and respiration monitors provide the investigator with the number of heartbeats or breaths taken when a new stimulus is presented.  Numerical increases are used as quantifiable indicators of heightened interest in the new stimulus. Increases in nonnutritive sucking were first used as an assessment measure by researchers in 1969. They devised an apparatus that connected a baby’s pacifier on to a counting device. As stimuli were presented, changes in the infant’s sucking behavior were recorded. Increases in the number of sucks were used as an indicator of the infant’s attention to or preference for a given visual display. Two additional techniques of studying infant perception have come into vogue. The first is the habituation-dishabituation technique, in which a single stimulus is presented repeatedly to the infant until there is a measurable decline (habituation) in whatever attending behavior is being observed. At that point a new stimulus is presented, and any recovery (dishabituation) in responsiveness is recorded. If the infant fails to dishabituate and continues to show habituation with the new stimulus, it is assumed that the baby is unable to perceive the new stimulus as different. The habituation-dishabituation paradigm has been used most extensively with studies of auditory and olfactory perception in infants. The second technique relies on evoked potentials, which are electrical brain responses that may be related to a particular stimulus because of where they originate. Changes in the electrical pattern of the brain indicate that the stimulus is getting through to the infant’s central nervous system and eliciting some form of response. Each of the preceding techniques provides the researcher with evidence that the infant can detect or discriminate between stimuli. With these sophisticated observational assessment and electro physiological measures, we know that the neonate of only a few days is far more perceptive than previously suspected. However, these measures are only “indirect” indicators of the infant’s perceptual abilities.