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Industrialization in the Netherlands and Scandinavia

虽然一些欧洲国家，如英国和德国，在18世纪已经开始工业化，荷兰和丹麦、挪威、瑞典等斯堪的纳维亚国家则发展较晚。

While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later.

这四个国家在19世纪早期都远远落后了。

All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century.

然而，它们在19世纪下半叶迅速工业化，特别是在最后二三十年。

However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades.

考虑到他们起步较晚且缺乏煤炭——这无疑是他们没有成为早期工业化国家的主要原因——了解他们成功的来源是很重要的。

In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success.

19世纪初，丹麦和挪威人口不足100万，瑞典和荷兰人口不足250万。

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Denmark and Norway had fewer than 1 million people, while Sweden and the Netherlands had fewer than 2.5 million inhabitants.

在这个世纪，所有国家都呈现出温和的增长速度（丹麦最高，瑞典最低），但到1900年，所有国家的人口都增长了一倍多。

All exhibited moderate growth rates in the course of the century (Denmark the highest and Sweden the lowest), but all more than doubled in population by 1900.

荷兰是欧洲人口密度最高的国家之一，而挪威和瑞典的人口密度最低。

The Netherlands had one of the highest population densities in Europe, whereas Norway and Sweden had the lowest.

丹麦位于两者之间，但离荷兰更近。

Denmark was in between but closer to the Netherlands.

但是，考虑到人力资本是人口的一个特点，这四个国家都因其识字和写字的人口比例很大而处于有利地位。

Considering human capital as a characteristic of the population, however, all four countries were advantaged by the large percentages of their populations who could read and write.

在1850年和1914年，斯堪的纳维亚国家的识字率是欧洲或世界最高的，而荷兰则远远高于欧洲平均水平。

In both 1850 and 1914, the Scandinavian countries had the highest literacy rates in Europe, or in the world, and the Netherlands was well above the European average.

这一事实对帮助各国经济在国际经济的发展浪潮中找到自己的位置具有巨大的价值。

This fact was of enormous value in helping the national economies find their niches in the evolving currents of the international economy.

地理位置对这四个国家来说都是一个重要的因素。

Location was an important factor for all four countries.

所有国家都能立即出海，这对重要的国际资源——鱼类，以及廉价的运输、商船队和造船业都具有重要意义。

All had immediate access to the sea, and this had important implications for a significant international resource, fish, as well as for cheap transport, merchant marines, and the shipbuilding industry.

每个国家都以自己的方式利用这些机会。

Each took advantage of these opportunities in its own way.

荷兰人有着悠久的渔业和商业航运传统，在开发适合轮船的良港方面遇到了困难；最终他们在鹿特丹和阿姆斯特丹这样做了，在与德国和中欧的过境贸易以及海外食品和原材料（糖、烟草、巧克力、谷物，最后是石油）的加工方面取得了非凡的成果。

The people of the Netherlands, with a long tradition of fisheries and mercantile shipping, had difficulty in developing good harbors suitable for steamships; eventually they did so at Rotterdam and Amsterdam, with exceptional results for transit trade with Germany and central Europe and for the processing of overseas foodstuffs and raw materials (sugar, tobacco, chocolate, grain, and eventually oil).

丹麦也有令人钦佩的商业历史，特别是在海峡（丹麦和瑞典之间的海峡）的交通方面。

Denmark also had an admirable commercial history, particularly with respect to traffic through the Sound (the strait separating Denmark and Sweden).

1857年，作为从其他商业国家收取6300万克朗的回报，丹麦废除了自1497年以来收取的海峡通行费。

In 1857, in return for a payment of 63 million kronor from other commercial nations, Denmark abolished the Sound toll dues, the fees it had collected since 1497 for the use of the Sound.

这一点，加上其他政策转向自由贸易，导致通过海峡和哥本哈根港口的交通显著增加。

This, along with other policy shifts toward free trade, resulted in a significant increase in traffic through the Sound and in the port of Copenhagen.

这四个国家的政治体制没有对工业化或经济增长构成重大障碍。

The political institutions of the four countries posed no significant barriers to industrialization or economic growth.

对这些国家来说，19世纪相对平静地过去了，所有这些国家都在逐步民主化。

The nineteenth century passed relatively peacefully for these countries, with progressive democratization taking place in all of them.

它们的管理相当良好，没有明显的腐败，也没有宏伟的国家项目，尽管在所有这些项目中，政府都为铁路提供了一些援助，而在瑞典，国家修建了主要的铁路线路。

They were reasonably well governed, without notable corruption or grandiose state projects, although in all of them the government gave some aid to railways, and in Sweden the state built the main lines.

作为依赖外国市场的小国，它们基本上奉行自由贸易政策，尽管在瑞典出现了保护主义运动。

As small countries dependent on foreign markets, they followed a liberal trade policy in the main, though a protectionist movement developed in Sweden.

在丹麦和瑞典，农业改革从18世纪后期到19世纪上半叶逐渐进行，产生了具有明确市场导向的新型农民地主阶层。

In Denmark and Sweden agricultural reforms took place gradually from the late eighteenth century through the first half of the nineteenth, resulting in a new class of peasant landowners with a definite market orientation.

这些国家的成功的关键因素（还有高识字率，都是造成这种情况的原因）是他们适应早期工业化国家所决定的国际分工的能力，以及在他们特别适合的国际市场上划出专业化领域的能力。

The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy, which contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited.

这意味着对国际贸易的极大依赖，而国际贸易的波动是出了名的；但这也意味着那些幸运地在繁荣时期处于有利地位的生产要素获得了高回报。

This meant a great dependence on international commerce, which had notorious fluctuations; but it also meant high returns to those factors of production that were fortunate enough to be well placed in times of prosperity.

在瑞典，出口在1870年占国民收入的18%，在1913年占国民收入的22%。

In Sweden exports accounted for 18 percent of the national income in 1870, and in 1913, 22 percent of a much larger national income.

20世纪初，丹麦63%的农产品出口：黄油、猪肉制品和鸡蛋。

In the early twentieth century, Denmark exported 63 percent of its agricultural production: butter, pork products, and eggs.

它出口的80%的黄油，几乎全部出口到英国，占英国黄油进口的40%。

It exported 80 percent of its butter, almost all to Great Britain, where it accounted for 40 percent of British butter imports.

Paragraph 1 supports which of the following ideas about England and Germany?

Paragraph 2 suggests which of the following about the importance of population density in the industrialization of the Netherlands and Scandinavia?

According to paragraphs 2 and 3, which of the following contributed significantly to the successful economic development of the Netherlands and of Scandinavia?

According to paragraph 4, because of their location, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries had all of the following advantages when they began to industrialize EXCEPT

According to paragraph 5, each of the following contributed positively to the industrialization of the Netherlands and Scandinavia EXCEPT

The author includes the information that “a protectionist movement developed in Sweden” in order to

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

According to paragraph 6, a major problem with depending heavily on international markets was that they

According to paragraph 6, what advantage could a country gain from being heavily involved in international commerce?

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. During this period, Sweden had the highest rate of growth of output per capita of any country in Europe, and Denmark was second.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Industrialization in the Netherlands and Scandinavia While some European countries, such as England and Germany, began to industrialize in the eighteenth century, the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden developed later.  All four of these countries lagged considerably behind in the early nineteenth century.  However, they industrialized rapidly in the second half of the century, especially in the last two or three decades.  In view of their later start and their lack of coal—undoubtedly the main reason they were not among the early industrializers—it is important to understand the sources of their success.  All had small populations. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Denmark and Norway had fewer than 1 million people, while Sweden and the Netherlands had fewer than 2.5 million inhabitants. All exhibited moderate growth rates in the course of the century (Denmark the highest and Sweden the lowest), but all more than doubled in population by 1900. Density varied greatly. The Netherlands had one of the highest population densities in Europe, whereas Norway and Sweden had the lowest. Denmark was in between but closer to the Netherlands. Considering human capital as a characteristic of the population, however, all four countries were advantaged by the large percentages of their populations who could read and write. In both 1850 and 1914, the Scandinavian countries had the highest literacy rates in Europe, or in the world, and the Netherlands was well above the European average. This fact was of enormous value in helping the national economies find their niches in the evolving currents of the international economy. Location was an important factor for all four countries. All had immediate access to the sea, and this had important implications for a significant international resource, fish, as well as for cheap transport, merchant marines, and the shipbuilding industry. Each took advantage of these opportunities in its own way. The people of the Netherlands, with a long tradition of fisheries and mercantile shipping, had difficulty in developing good harbors suitable for steamships; eventually they did so at Rotterdam and Amsterdam, with exceptional results for transit trade with Germany and central Europe and for the processing of overseas foodstuffs and raw materials (sugar, tobacco, chocolate, grain, and eventually oil). Denmark also had an admirable commercial history, particularly with respect to traffic through the Sound (the strait separating Denmark and Sweden). In 1857, in return for a payment of 63 million kronor from other commercial nations, Denmark abolished the Sound toll dues, the fees it had collected since 1497 for the use of the Sound. This, along with other policy shifts toward free trade, resulted in a significant increase in traffic through the Sound and in the port of Copenhagen. The political institutions of the four countries posed no significant barriers to industrialization or economic growth. The nineteenth century passed relatively peacefully for these countries, with progressive democratization taking place in all of them. They were reasonably well governed, without notable corruption or grandiose state projects, although in all of them the government gave some aid to railways, and in Sweden the state built the main lines. As small countries dependent on foreign markets, they followed a liberal trade policy in the main, though a protectionist movement developed in Sweden. In Denmark and Sweden agricultural reforms took place gradually from the late eighteenth century through the first half of the nineteenth, resulting in a new class of peasant landowners with a definite market orientation. The key factor in the success of these countries (along with high literacy, which contributed to it) was their ability to adapt to the international division of labor determined by the early industrializers and to stake out areas of specialization in international markets for which they were especially well suited. This meant a great dependence on international commerce, which had notorious fluctuations; but it also meant high returns to those factors of production that were fortunate enough to be well placed in times of prosperity. In Sweden exports accounted for 18 percent of the national income in 1870, and in 1913, 22 percent of a much larger national income. In the early twentieth century, Denmark exported 63 percent of its agricultural production: butter, pork products, and eggs. It exported 80 percent of its butter, almost all to Great Britain, where it accounted for 40 percent of British butter imports.