『新东方在线托福阅读』为托福考生准备了ETS托福TPO/Official 25 Passage 2阅读练习：The word “conventional” in the passage is closest in meaning to真题题目及答案解析，TPO/Official 25 Passage 2阅读原文范文音频翻译

托福TPO/Official 25 Passage 2阅读原文The word “conventional” in the passage is closest in meaning to题目答案及解析-新东方托福官方网校手机版

13世纪晚期，意大利北部的热那亚、佛罗伦萨和威尼斯等城市开始了经济复兴，这让它们成为欧洲最重要的经济中心。

In the late thirteenth century, northern Italian cities such as Genoa, Florence, and Venice began an economic resurgence that made them into the most important economic centers of Europe.

然而，到了17世纪，在意大利城市失去很多经济实力时，其他欧洲列强实力崛起。

By the seventeenth century, however, other European powers had taken over, as the Italian cities lost much of their economic might.

这种下降可以从影响威尼斯航运和贸易的变化中清楚地看到。

This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade.

首先，威尼斯在亚得里亚海（Adriatic Sea）的中介功能被直接贸易所取代，在该海域威尼斯曾主导着其他国家的航运业务。

First, Venice’s intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading.

在15世纪，招募水手来划船（由桨推动的大型船只）几乎没有问题：公会（商业协会）被要求提供划桨者，并且当需要时，自由公民通过征兵制度被强制服役。

In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guilds (business associations) were required to provide rowers, and through a draft system free citizens served compulsorily when called for.

在16世纪早期，桨手的短缺并不严重，因为对大桡船的需求受限，转移到了对桨手需求更少的圆船上（圆船体的船有更多的货物空间）。

In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), which required fewer rowers.

然而，船员的短缺已成为一个越来越严重的问题，尽管威尼斯一直在向海上强国的传统发出呼吁。

But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, despite continuous appeal to Venice’s tradition of maritime greatness.

尽管1550年到1590年间，意大利北部城市的水手工资翻了一番，但这并没有增加供给。

Even though sailors’ wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply.

海运的问题延伸到阿森纳尔（军械库），威尼斯的巨大而强大的造船厂。

The problem in shipping extended to the Arsenale, Venice’s huge and powerful shipyard.

木材短缺，需要从很远的地方购买。

Timber ran short, and it was necessary to procure it from farther and farther away.

在古罗马时代，意大利半岛上有大片的杉木森林，是军舰的首选，但早在14世纪早期，稀缺性就很明显了。

In ancient Roman times, the Italian peninsula had great forests of fir preferred for warships, but scarcity was apparent as early as the early fourteenth century.

阿森纳尔的官员们首先从阿尔卑斯山的山麓地带运来木材，然后从北方运至里雅斯特，最后从亚得里亚海对岸运来。

Arsenale officers first brought timber from the foothills of the Alps, then from north toward Trieste, and finally from across the Adriatic.

私营造船商被要求到国外购买他们的橡树。

Private shipbuilders were required to buy their oak abroad.

随着造船成本的上升，威尼斯固守着过时的标准，而荷兰人则在发明更轻、更容易操作的船只。

As the costs of shipbuilding rose, Venice clung to its outdated standards while the Dutch were innovating in lighter and more easily handled ships.

从购买外国木材到购买外国船只的这一步骤很快完成，特别是在16世纪后期听到有人抱怨军械库的标准和传统正在下降的时候。

The step from buying foreign timber to buying foreign ships was regarded as a short one, especially when complaints were heard in the latter sixteenth century that the standards and traditions of the Arsenale were running down.

年长的工人被允许提前半小时停止工作，1601年年轻的工人和也效仿他们。

Older workers had been allowed to stop work a half hour before the regular time, and in 1601 younger workers left with them.

商人们抱怨说，为威尼斯人建造和拥有的船只保留的特权首先被扩展到那些从国外购买船只的威尼斯人，然后扩展到外国建造和拥有船只的人身上。

Merchants complained that the privileges reserved for Venetian-built and -owned ships were first extended to those Venetians who bought ships from abroad and then to foreign-built and -owned vessels.

历史学家弗雷德里克·莱恩注意到，在16世纪晚期的战争中损失了船只之后，造船业再也没有能力恢复到本世纪初的水平。

Historian Frederic Lane observes that after the loss of ships in battle in the late sixteenth century, the shipbuilding industry no longer had the capacity to recover that it had displayed at the start of the century.

传统上对威尼斯失去贸易优势的解释是，葡萄牙直达东方的海上航线的建立，取代了黑海的陆上丝绸之路和利润丰厚的印度洋-商队-地中海东部到威尼斯的航线。

The conventional explanation for the loss of Venetian dominance in trade is the establishment of the Portuguese direct sea route to the East, replacing the overland Silk Road from the Black Sea and the highly profitable Indian Ocean-caravan-eastern Mediterranean route to Venice.

葡萄牙人瓦斯科·达·伽马（Vasco da Gama）在15世纪末环绕南部非洲航行至印度，到1502年，横贯阿拉伯的商队路线因政治动乱而被切断。

The Portuguese Vasco da Gama’s voyage around southern Africa to India took place at the end of the fifteenth century, and by 1502 the trans-Arabian caravan route had been cut off by political unrest.

威尼斯委员会最终允许圆船进入原本只供商船（单船）使用的贸易，从而降低了三分之一的运输成本。

The Venetian Council finally allowed round ships to enter the trade that was previously reserved for merchant galleys, thus reducing transport costs by one third.

从东地中海运来的香料的价格与葡萄牙船只运来的香料的价格相当，但两条航线上香料数量的增加使价格大幅下降。

Prices of spices delivered by ship from the eastern Mediterranean came to equal those of spices transported by Portuguese vessels, but the increase in quantity with both routes in operation drove the price far down.

渐渐地，威尼斯作为香料、丝绸、染料、棉花和黄金的储存和配送中心的地位开始衰落，到17世纪早期，威尼斯已经失去了在法国和德国南部等市场的垄断地位。

Gradually, Venice’s role as a storage and distribution center for spices and silk, dyes, cotton, and gold decayed, and by the early seventeenth century Venice had lost its monopoly in markets such as France and southern Germany.

威尼斯的航运业从1530年左右开始衰落——那是在大量荷兰和英国船只进入地中海之前——到本世纪末，威尼斯的航运业明显落后。

Venetian shipping had started to decline from about 1530—before the entry into the Mediterranean of large volumes of Dutch and British shipping—and was clearly outclassed by the end of the century.

一位与莎士比亚同时代的人（1564-1616）注意到，与英国相比，由于保守主义和专业知识的丧失，意大利船运的生产率已经下降。

A contemporary of Shakespeare (1564–1616) observed that the productivity of Italian shipping had declined, compared with that of the British, because of conservatism and loss of expertise.

此外，意大利的水手都在离开和移民，船长也不再是从贵族中招募，在航海导航方面也很弱。

Moreover, Italian sailors were deserting and emigrating, and captains, no longer recruited from the ranks of nobles, were weak on navigation.

The word “resurgence” in the passage is closest in meaning to

The word “compulsorily” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 2, which of the following contributed to the decline of Venetian shipping?

All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 2 as ways that Venice provided rowers for its galleys EXCEPT

The word “outdated” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 3, why did the building of ships in Venetian shipyards become increasingly expensive?

All of the following are mentioned in paragraphs 3 and 4 as contributing to the problems of the Venetian shipbuilding industry at the end of the sixteenth century EXCEPT:

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

The word “conventional” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Why does the author mention “Vasco da Gama’s voyage around southern Africa to India” in the passage?

Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 6 about the Venetian Council’s decision concerning the use of round ships?

According to paragraph 6, in the sixteenth century the price of spices declined because

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. The increase in rewards still did not attract young people to this hard life, and convicted criminals and slaves were pressed into service.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The Decline of Venetian Shipping In the late thirteenth century, northern Italian cities such as Genoa, Florence, and Venice began an economic resurgence that made them into the most important economic centers of Europe. By the seventeenth century, however, other European powers had taken over, as the Italian cities lost much of their economic might. This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. First, Venice’s intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading. In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guilds (business associations) were required to provide rowers, and through a draft system free citizens served compulsorily when called for.  In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), which required fewer rowers.  But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, despite continuous appeal to Venice’s tradition of maritime greatness.  Even though sailors’ wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply.  The problem in shipping extended to the Arsenale, Venice’s huge and powerful shipyard. Timber ran short, and it was necessary to procure it from farther and farther away. In ancient Roman times, the Italian peninsula had great forests of fir preferred for warships, but scarcity was apparent as early as the early fourteenth century. Arsenale officers first brought timber from the foothills of the Alps, then from north toward Trieste, and finally from across the Adriatic. Private shipbuilders were required to buy their oak abroad. As the costs of shipbuilding rose, Venice clung to its outdated standards while the Dutch were innovating in lighter and more easily handled ships. The step from buying foreign timber to buying foreign ships was regarded as a short one, especially when complaints were heard in the latter sixteenth century that the standards and traditions of the Arsenale were running down. Work was stretched out and done poorly. Older workers had been allowed to stop work a half hour before the regular time, and in 1601 younger workers left with them. Merchants complained that the privileges reserved for Venetian-built and -owned ships were first extended to those Venetians who bought ships from abroad and then to foreign-built and -owned vessels. Historian Frederic Lane observes that after the loss of ships in battle in the late sixteenth century, the shipbuilding industry no longer had the capacity to recover that it had displayed at the start of the century. The conventional explanation for the loss of Venetian dominance in trade is the establishment of the Portuguese direct sea route to the East, replacing the overland Silk Road from the Black Sea and the highly profitable Indian Ocean-caravan-eastern Mediterranean route to Venice. The Portuguese Vasco da Gama’s voyage around southern Africa to India took place at the end of the fifteenth century, and by 1502 the trans-Arabian caravan route had been cut off by political unrest. The Venetian Council finally allowed round ships to enter the trade that was previously reserved for merchant galleys, thus reducing transport costs by one third. Prices of spices delivered by ship from the eastern Mediterranean came to equal those of spices transported by Portuguese vessels, but the increase in quantity with both routes in operation drove the price far down. Gradually, Venice’s role as a storage and distribution center for spices and silk, dyes, cotton, and gold decayed, and by the early seventeenth century Venice had lost its monopoly in markets such as France and southern Germany. Venetian shipping had started to decline from about 1530—before the entry into the Mediterranean of large volumes of Dutch and British shipping—and was clearly outclassed by the end of the century. A contemporary of Shakespeare (1564–1616) observed that the productivity of Italian shipping had declined, compared with that of the British, because of conservatism and loss of expertise. Moreover, Italian sailors were deserting and emigrating, and captains, no longer recruited from the ranks of nobles, were weak on navigation.