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伊斯兰书本艺术（例如书法和装饰画）在公元900至1500年间发展起来，豪华的书本是这一时期伊斯兰艺术最典型的例子之一。

The arts of the Islamic book, such as calligraphy and decorative drawing, developed during A.D. 900 to 1500, and luxury books are some of the most characteristic examples of Islamic art produced in this period.

这来自于两个主要的变化：纸张变得常见，取代了羊皮纸作为主要的书写媒介，此外人们对圆角的文字进行了规范和完善，以使它们取代了上一时期的楔形文字，楔形文字由于棱角分明而在高度上不均匀。

This came about from two major developments: paper became common, replacing parchment as the major medium for writing, and rounded scripts were regularized and perfected so that they replaced the angular scripts of the previous period, which because of their angularity were uneven in height.

书籍成为表达艺术的主要手段，制作这些书籍的艺术家（尤其是书法家和画家）享有很高的地位，他们的工作室经常由王子和他们的王宫赞助。

Books became major vehicles for artistic expression, and the artists who produced them, notably calligraphers and painters, enjoyed high status, and their workshops were often sponsored by princes and their courts.

公元900年以前，《古兰经》的手稿（包含伊斯兰教义的书）似乎是最常被生产和装饰的书，但是在那之后，人们为各种各样的顾客生产了各种各样的书。

Before A.D. 900, manuscripts of the Koran (the book containing the teachings of the Islamic religion) seem to have been the most common type of book produced and decorated, but after that date a wide range of books were produced for a broad spectrum of patrons.

当然，这些书中仍然包括《古兰经》，这本书每个穆斯林信徒都想读；但科学作品、历史、浪漫史以及史诗和抒情诗也被抄写成精美的样式并装饰有精美的插图。

These continued to include, of course, manuscripts of the Koran, which every Muslim wanted to read, but scientific works, histories, romances, and epic and lyric poetry were also copied in fine handwriting and decorated with beautiful illustrations.

这些书大部分都是在公开市场上出售的，城市拥有专门的露天市场，可以买卖书籍。

Most were made for sale on the open market, and cities boasted special souks (markets) where books were bought and sold.

摩洛哥马拉喀什的清真寺被称为库图比亚，或书商清真寺，得名于邻近的市场。

The mosque of Marrakech in Morocco is known as the Kutubiyya, or Booksellers’ Mosque, after the adjacent market.

一些最豪华的书是按某些王子的要求特定委托制作的，这些书由书法家和装饰家签字。

Some of the most luxurious books were specific commissions made at the order of a particular prince and signed by the calligrapher and decorator.

造纸术是在8世纪从中国传入伊斯兰国的。

Papermaking had been introduced to the Islamic lands from China in the eighth century.

有人说，中国造纸商是751年在中国和穆斯林之间在撒马尔罕附近的一场战斗中被俘的囚犯之一，而造纸技术（从几种植物中提取的纤维素纸浆，纸浆先悬浮在水中，然后沉淀在精细的幕布上，然后干燥成柔软的薄片并变成柔软的纸片的技术）慢慢向西扩散。

It has been said that Chinese papermakers were among the prisoners captured in a battle fought near Samarqand between the Chinese and the Muslims in 751, and the technique of papermaking—in which cellulose pulp extracted from any of several plants is first suspended in water, caught on a fine screen, and then dried into flexible sheets—slowly spread westward.

五十年来，巴格达政府一直在使用纸张记录文件。

Within fifty years, the government in Baghdad was using paper for documents.

与羊皮纸不同，用墨水在纸上书写不能轻易擦除，因此纸张具有难以更改书写内容的优点。

Writing in ink on paper, unlike parchment, could not easily be erased, and therefore paper had the advantage that it was difficult to alter what was written on it.

造纸术迅速传播到埃及，并最终传播到西西里岛和西班牙。但是纸张取代羊皮纸来记录《古兰经》的过程花费了几个世纪的时间，这可能是由于宗教艺术及其从业者的保守性所致。

Papermaking spread quickly to Egypt—and eventually to Sicily and Spain—but it was several centuries before paper supplanted parchment for copies of the Koran, probably because of the conservative nature of religious art and its practitioners.

在此期间，在伊斯兰西部地区，羊皮纸继续被用作古兰经的手稿。

In western Islamic lands, parchment continued to be used for manuscripts of the Koran throughout this period.

纸张的引入引发了一场概念革命，其影响几乎未被探讨过。

The introduction of paper spurred a conceptual revolution whose consequences have barely been explored.

尽管纸张从来没有像现在这样便宜过，但是它比羊皮纸便宜得多，因此有更多的人有能力购买书籍。

Although paper was never as cheap as it has become today, it was far less expensive than parchment, and therefore more people could afford to buy books.

纸张比羊皮纸薄，因此可以在一册书中装入更多页面。

Paper is thinner than parchment, so more pages could be enclosed within a single volume.

最初，纸张是用相对较小的薄片粘贴在一起制成的。但是到了14世纪初，已经可以使用非常大的薄片来造纸了（长达一米）。

At first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets—as much as a meter across—were available.

这些大的张纸意味着书法家和艺术家有更多的发挥空间。

These large sheets meant that calligraphers and artists had more space on which to work.

绘画变得更加复杂，这就为艺术家提供了更多描绘空间或情感的机会。

Paintings became more complicated, giving the artist greater opportunities to depict space or emotion.

纸张供应的增加（特别是在1250年以后），鼓励人们开发各种图例系统，例如建筑平面图和图纸。

The increased availability of paper, particularly after 1250, encouraged people to develop systems of representation, such as architectural plans and drawings.

这样一来，就可以很容易地将艺术思想和主题从一种媒介轻松远距离地转移到另一种媒介，并以不同的规模进行转移。这种传播方式和规模即使在以前能够实现，也是非常困难的。

This in turn allowed the easy transfer of artistic ideas and motifs over great distances, from one medium to another, and in a different scale in ways that had been difficult, if not impossible, in the previous period.

跟用于古兰经题词和手稿的楔形字体一起，阿拉伯文手写体的圆形样式长期以来被用于书信和记录文档。

Rounded styles of Arabic handwriting had long been used for correspondence and documents alongside the formal angular scripts used for inscriptions and manuscripts of the Koran.

在900年左右，前巴格达阿巴斯（Abbasid）法院的秘书兼顾问伊本·穆克拉（Ibn Muqla）建立了比例写作体系。

Around the year 900, Ibn Muqla, who was a secretary and vizier at the Abbasid court in Baghdad, developed a system of proportioned writing.

他对阿拉伯字母首个字母alif的长度进行了标准化，然后根据alif确定了所有其他字母的大小和形状。

He standardized the length of alif, the first letter of the Arabic alphabet, and then determined what the size and shape of all other letters should be, based on the alif.

最终，由三对大小字体组成的六种圆形笔迹（统称为“六笔”），成为每个书法家的标准参考汇编。

Eventually, six round forms of handwriting, composed of three pairs of big and little scripts known collectively as the Six Pens, became the standard repertory of every calligrapher.

Paragraph 1 makes all of the following points about Islamic books EXCEPT:

The word “sponsored” in the passage is closest in meaning to

The word “adjacent” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 1, before A.D. 900, books in the Islamic world

In paragraph 1, why does the author mention the fact that the mosque in Marrakech, Morocco, is known as the Booksellers' Mosque?

The phrase “extracted from” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

In paragraphs 2 and 3, which of the following is NOT mentioned as an advantage of paper over parchment?

Why does the author include the following information: “At first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets—as much as a meter across—were available.”?

According to paragraph 3, the increased availability of paper and the development of systems of representation

According to paragraph 4, what did Ibn Muqla achieve around the year 900?

The phrase “composed of” in the passage is closest in meaning to

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. This change occurred for good reason.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Islamic Art and the Book The arts of the Islamic book, such as calligraphy and decorative drawing, developed during A.D. 900 to 1500, and luxury books are some of the most characteristic examples of Islamic art produced in this period. This came about from two major developments: paper became common, replacing parchment as the major medium for writing, and rounded scripts were regularized and perfected so that they replaced the angular scripts of the previous period, which because of their angularity were uneven in height. Books became major vehicles for artistic expression, and the artists who produced them, notably calligraphers and painters, enjoyed high status, and their workshops were often sponsored by princes and their courts. Before A.D. 900, manuscripts of the Koran (the book containing the teachings of the Islamic religion) seem to have been the most common type of book produced and decorated, but after that date a wide range of books were produced for a broad spectrum of patrons. These continued to include, of course, manuscripts of the Koran, which every Muslim wanted to read, but scientific works, histories, romances, and epic and lyric poetry were also copied in fine handwriting and decorated with beautiful illustrations. Most were made for sale on the open market, and cities boasted special souks (markets) where books were bought and sold. The mosque of Marrakech in Morocco is known as the Kutubiyya, or Booksellers’ Mosque, after the adjacent market. Some of the most luxurious books were specific commissions made at the order of a particular prince and signed by the calligrapher and decorator. Papermaking had been introduced to the Islamic lands from China in the eighth century.  It has been said that Chinese papermakers were among the prisoners captured in a battle fought near Samarqand between the Chinese and the Muslims in 751, and the technique of papermaking—in which cellulose pulp extracted from any of several plants is first suspended in water, caught on a fine screen, and then dried into flexible sheets—slowly spread westward.  Within fifty years, the government in Baghdad was using paper for documents.  Writing in ink on paper, unlike parchment, could not easily be erased, and therefore paper had the advantage that it was difficult to alter what was written on it.  Papermaking spread quickly to Egypt—and eventually to Sicily and Spain—but it was several centuries before paper supplanted parchment for copies of the Koran, probably because of the conservative nature of religious art and its practitioners. In western Islamic lands, parchment continued to be used for manuscripts of the Koran throughout this period. The introduction of paper spurred a conceptual revolution whose consequences have barely been explored. Although paper was never as cheap as it has become today, it was far less expensive than parchment, and therefore more people could afford to buy books. Paper is thinner than parchment, so more pages could be enclosed within a single volume. At first, paper was made in relatively small sheets that were pasted together, but by the beginning of the fourteenth century, very large sheets—as much as a meter across—were available. These large sheets meant that calligraphers and artists had more space on which to work. Paintings became more complicated, giving the artist greater opportunities to depict space or emotion. The increased availability of paper, particularly after 1250, encouraged people to develop systems of representation, such as architectural plans and drawings. This in turn allowed the easy transfer of artistic ideas and motifs over great distances, from one medium to another, and in a different scale in ways that had been difficult, if not impossible, in the previous period. Rounded styles of Arabic handwriting had long been used for correspondence and documents alongside the formal angular scripts used for inscriptions and manuscripts of the Koran. Around the year 900, Ibn Muqla, who was a secretary and vizier at the Abbasid court in Baghdad, developed a system of proportioned writing. He standardized the length of alif, the first letter of the Arabic alphabet, and then determined what the size and shape of all other letters should be, based on the alif. Eventually, six round forms of handwriting, composed of three pairs of big and little scripts known collectively as the Six Pens, became the standard repertory of every calligrapher.