『新东方在线托福阅读』为托福考生准备了ETS托福TPO/Official 54 Passage 1阅读练习：The word “commodity” in the passage is closest in meaning to真题题目及答案解析，TPO/Official 54 Passage 1阅读原文范文音频翻译

托福TPO/Official 54 Passage 1阅读原文The word “commodity” in the passage is closest in meaning to题目答案及解析-新东方托福官方网校手机版

在19世纪的美国，几乎所有建筑材料都含有木材。

In nineteenth-century America, practically everything that was built involved wood.

松树在建筑方面特别有吸引力。

Pine was especially attractive for building purposes.

它坚固耐用，但又足够柔软，即使用最简单的手动工具也可以轻松地进行操作。

It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools.

它也可以很好地漂浮在水面上，因此可以将其运输到全国各地遥远的市场。

It also floats nicely on water, which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation.

五大湖州的中部和北部—密歇根州，威斯康星州和明尼苏达州—都拥有广阔的松树林以及许多大河，可将原木漂浮到五大湖中，并从那里运往全国。

The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states—Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes, from where they were transported nationwide.

到1860年，美国西部的殖民地以及东部地区的木材短缺，对五大湖州松树林的影响日益扩大。

By 1860, the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states.

在接下来的30年中，伐木业成为密歇根州，威斯康星州和明尼苏达州的一项成熟行业。

Over the next 30 years, lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota.

新成立的伐木公司购买了大片的松林，并着手系统地砍伐树木。

Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees.

殖民者和后来的工业家都将木材视为商品，但后者则采用了一种更为彻底和精明的方法来砍伐树木。

Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity, but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees.

从这个意义上讲，1860年至1890年之间发生的事情代表了一种对过去的重大突破。

In this sense, what happened between 1860 and 1890 represented a significant break with the past.

木瓦、薪柴和其他木制品不再是寻求额外收入的农民的主要来源。

No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles, firewood, and other wood products.

到19世纪70年代，农民和城市居民都从五大湖州的大型制造公司购买林产品，而不是自己砍柴或在当地购买木材。

By the 1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturing companies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally.

伐木业的商业化是技术变革产物的一部分。

The commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change.

早期较厚的锯片往往会浪费大量的木材，大约有三分之一的原木以木屑或碎屑的形式留在地板上。

The early, thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood, with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap.

然而，在19世纪70年代，英国发明了带锯，其刀片较薄，成为五大湖区各木材厂的标准配置。

In the 1870s, however, the British-invented band saw, with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states’ lumber factories.

同时，蒸汽工厂的兴起允许人们更高效，集中和连续地切割木材，从而实现了流水线生产。

Meanwhile, the rise of steam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient, centralized, and continuous cutting of lumber.

蒸汽帮助人们实现了从切割到废物处理等各种任务的自动化。

Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks, from cutting to the carrying away of waste.

工厂还使用蒸汽加热原木池，防止它们结冰，并使全年的木材生产成为可能。

Mills also employed steam to heat log ponds, preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production.

为了使工业化伐木成功，必须找到一种方法来抵消季节对生产的影响。

For industrial lumbering to succeed, a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production.

从传统来说，伐木是在冬天进行的，当时的雪和冰使得雪橇上的原木更加容易运到溪流边。

Traditionally, cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams.

一旦溪流和湖泊融化，工人便将原木漂流至工厂，在夏天将原木砍成木材。

Once the streams and lakes thawed, workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer.

如果自然不配合—如果冬天干燥温暖，如果春天解冻延迟—生产将受到影响。

If nature did not cooperate—if the winter proved dry and warm, if the spring thaw was delayed—production would suffer.

为了应对气候变化对木材生产的影响，伐木工人尝试了多种将树木运出树林的技术。

To counter the effects of climate on lumber production, loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods.

在19世纪70年代，五大湖州的伐木工人开始在雪橇道路上洒水，为它们铺上人造冰，以方便运输。

In the 1870s, loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads, giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel.

冰减少了摩擦，使工人可以移动更大，更重的货物。

The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.

但是，世界上所有的洒水行为都不能使伐木工人免受暖冬的威胁。

But all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter.

没有积雪，雪橇道路变成了泥路。

Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud.

在19世纪70年代，一系列没有雪的冬天使木材公司开始思考从季节中解放自己的方法。

In the 1870s, a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons.

起初，松树林的偏僻阻碍了普通承运公司铺设道路。

At first, the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track.

但是在19世纪70年代后期，木材价格上涨，加上周期性的温暖干燥的冬季，迫使伐木工人转向铁轨运输。

But increasing lumber prices in the late 1870s combined with periodic warm, dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails.

到1887年，密歇根州有89条伐木铁路纵横交错，将伐木从冬季活动转变为全年活动。

By 1887, 89 logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one.

一旦原木到达河流，其顺流到达工厂之旅将会漫长而曲折。

Once the logs arrived at a river, the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one.

原木阻塞（阻止原木向下游移动的原木积聚）很普遍（有时会延伸10英里），并且随着19世纪60年代中西部北部松树地带的伐木压力增加而变得更加频繁。

Logjams (buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream) were common—at times stretching for 10 miles—and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s.

为了保持原木的有效运输，人们建造了称为吊杆（基本上是浮动的原木链）的障碍物，以控制木材的方向。

To help keep the logs moving efficiently, barriers called booms (essentially a chain of floating logs) were constructed to control the direction of the timber.

到19世纪70年代，木材公司已经存在于中西部北部的所有主要伐木区。

By the 1870s, lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.

The word “durable” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 1, all of the following characteristics of pine made it a desirable material for building in nineteenth-century America EXCEPT:

The word “commodity” in the passage is closest in meaning to

What can be inferred from paragraph 2 about timber in America before the year 1860 ?

Why does the author discuss the British-invented band saw?

The phrase “allowing for” in the passage is closest in meaning to

All of the following are mentioned in paragraph 3 as resulting from the use of steam in the lumber industry EXCEPT:

The word “facilitate” in the passage is closest in meaning to

According to paragraph 4, how could a warm, dry winter interfere with lumber production?

The word “remoteness” in the passage is closest in meaning to

In paragraph 5, why does the author include the information that 89 logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan by 1887 ?

According to paragraph 6, the construction of booms benefited the logging industry by

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Some sleighs were capable of carrying over 100 tons worth of timber.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The Commercialization of Lumber In nineteenth-century America, practically everything that was built involved wood. Pine was especially attractive for building purposes. It is durable and strong, yet soft enough to be easily worked with even the simplest of hand tools. It also floats nicely on water, which allowed it to be transported to distant markets across the nation. The central and northern reaches of the Great Lakes states—Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota—all contained extensive pine forests as well as many large rivers for floating logs into the Great Lakes, from where they were transported nationwide. By 1860, the settlement of the American West along with timber shortages in the East converged with ever-widening impact on the pine forests of the Great Lakes states. Over the next 30 years, lumbering became a full-fledged enterprise in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Newly formed lumbering corporations bought up huge tracts of pineland and set about systematically cutting the trees. Both the colonists and the later industrialists saw timber as a commodity, but the latter group adopted a far more thorough and calculating approach to removing trees. In this sense, what happened between 1860 and 1890 represented a significant break with the past. No longer were farmers in search of extra income the main source for shingles, firewood, and other wood products. By the 1870s, farmers and city dwellers alike purchased forest products from large manufacturing companies located in the Great Lakes states rather than chopping wood themselves or buying it locally. The commercialization of lumbering was in part the product of technological change. The early, thick saw blades tended to waste a large quantity of wood, with perhaps as much as a third of the log left behind on the floor as sawdust or scrap. In the 1870s, however, the British-invented band saw, with its thinner blade, became standard issue in the Great Lakes states’ lumber factories. Meanwhile, the rise of steam-powered mills streamlined production by allowing for the more efficient, centralized, and continuous cutting of lumber. Steam helped to automate a variety of tasks, from cutting to the carrying away of waste. Mills also employed steam to heat log ponds, preventing them from freezing and making possible year-round lumber production. For industrial lumbering to succeed, a way had to be found to neutralize the effects of the seasons on production. Traditionally, cutting took place in the winter, when snow and ice made it easier to drag logs on sleds or sleighs to the banks of streams. Once the streams and lakes thawed, workers rafted the logs to mills, where they were cut into lumber in the summer.  If nature did not cooperate—if the winter proved dry and warm, if the spring thaw was delayed—production would suffer. To counter the effects of climate on lumber production, loggers experimented with a variety of techniques for transporting trees out of the woods.  In the 1870s, loggers in the Great Lakes states began sprinkling water on sleigh roads, giving them an artificial ice coating to facilitate travel.  The ice reduced the friction and allowed workers to move larger and heavier loads.  But all the sprinkling in the world would not save a logger from the threat of a warm winter. Without snow the sleigh roads turned to mud. In the 1870s, a set of snowless winters left lumber companies to ponder ways of liberating themselves from the seasons. Railroads were one possibility. At first, the remoteness of the pine forests discouraged common carriers from laying track. But increasing lumber prices in the late 1870s combined with periodic warm, dry winters compelled loggers to turn to iron rails. By 1887, 89 logging railroads crisscrossed Michigan, transforming logging from a winter activity into a year-round one. Once the logs arrived at a river, the trip downstream to a mill could be a long and tortuous one. Logjams (buildups of logs that prevent logs from moving downstream) were common—at times stretching for 10 miles—and became even more frequent as pressure on the northern Midwest pinelands increased in the 1860s. To help keep the logs moving efficiently, barriers called booms (essentially a chain of floating logs) were constructed to control the direction of the timber. By the 1870s, lumber companies existed in all the major logging areas of the northern Midwest.