『新东方在线托福阅读』为托福考生准备了ETS托福TPO/Official 72 Passage1阅读练习：According to paragraph 3, what was E. J. Opik's contribution to the study of craters?真题题目及答案解析，TPO/Official 72 Passage1阅读原文范文音频翻译

托福TPO/Official 72 Passage1阅读原文According to paragraph 3, what was E. J. Opik's contribution to the study of craters?题目答案及解析-新东方托福官方网校手机版

从1609年发现月球环形山到最近，尽管几代观察者对月球的地形和环形山进行了细致的研究，人们几乎一致认为月球环形山是火山形成的。

From their discovery in 1609 until recently, lunar craters were almost unanimously thought to have volcanic origins, even though the topography of the Moon and its craters had been studied minutely by generations of observers.

反对的声音，比如罗伯特·胡克在1665年提出的它们是由流星撞击形成的假设，并没有动摇大多数人的意见。

Dissenting voices, such as that of Robert Hooke, who postulated in 1665 that they were formed by the impact of meteors, did little to sway the majority opinion.

1893年，地质学家g·k·吉尔伯特（G. K. Gilbert）对火山形成假说提出了最严峻的挑战。

The most serious challenge to the volcanic-formation hypothesis was made in 1893 by the geologist G. K. Gilbert

在分析了陨石坑的深度与直径之比后，吉尔伯特提出，陨石坑可能只是由流星的撞击形成的。

After analyzing the depth-to-diameter ratios of craters, Gilbert suggested that the craters could have been formed only by the impact of meteors.

通常观察到的中心峰是由岩石的反弹引起的，类似于液体的反弹（想象一下水滴落在水坑里）。

The central peaks that were commonly observed resulted from rebound of rock, in a similar manner to liquids (think of drops of water hitting a puddle).

明亮的光线围绕着许多陨石坑，这些陨石坑是由撞击期间抛射出来的物质形成的。

Bright rays surrounded many craters that were formed from material flung out during the impact-impact ejecta.

虽然撞击表面的角度可以从小于5°到90°，但早期的实验表明，只有垂直（90°）撞击才能产生圆形陨石坑。

Although impacts with a surface can occur at all angles, from less than 5°to 90°,early experiments suggested that only vertical (90°) impacts were capable of producing circular craters.

因此，反对月球陨石坑形成的撞击机制的主要论点是，月球上只能看到圆形的陨石坑。

So the main argument against an impact mechanism for lunar crater formation was that only circular craters could be seen on the Moon.

然而，吉尔伯特自己证明了平均的撞击角度是45°—事实上，很少有撞击是接近垂直的。

However, Gilbert himself showed that the average impact angle was 45°-in fact, very few impacts were close to vertical.

1916年，E. J. Opik发表了一篇文章，指出流星在高速下的撞击与早期实验室实验中产生的低速撞击有着根本的不同。

In 1916 E. J. Opik published work that recognized that the impact of meteors at very high velocities would be fundamentally different from the impact at low velocities created in early laboratory experiments.

如此高速的撞击会产生与爆炸相似的效果，即使在低撞击角度下，陨石坑也会是圆形的。

Such high-velocity impacts would have a similar effect to an explosion, and craters would be circular even at low impact angles.

尽管如此，火山假说仍然没有被影响，科学界也不愿意接受陨石坑的说法。

Nevertheless, the volcanic hypothesis remained intact, and there was significant unwillingness amongst the Scientific community about accepting impact cratering.

20世纪60年代，随着美国地质学家吉恩·舒梅克（Gene Shoemaker）的工作，这种情况开始发生变化。舒梅克一生都在研究陨石坑。

This began to change in the 1960s with the work of the American geologist Gene Shoemaker, who made a lifetime study of cratering.

在地球上已知的170个陨石坑中，亚利桑那州的陨石坑是最早被认为是由撞击形成的陨石坑之一。

Of the 170 known impact craters on the Earth, Meteor Crater in Arizona was one of the first to be recognized as being formed from an impact.

1906年，巴林杰博士为撞击形成理论提供了很好的证据。

In 1906 D. M. Barringer had provided good evidence for impact formation.

然而，直到20世纪60年代，陨石坑才被普遍认为是一个撞击坑。

However, Meteor Crater was not universally accepted as an impact crater until the 1960s.

舒梅克在1960年和1963年发表的论文中最终证明了它的影响起源。

Its impact origin was finally demonstrated in papers published in 1960 and 1963 by Shoemaker.

有三条证据表明，陨石坑是由撞击而不是火山喷发形成的。

Three lines of evidence show that an impact, and not a volcanic eruption, formed Meteor Crater.

首先，正如巴林杰所认识到的，在陨石坑周围的沙漠平原上发现了许多大的撞击碎片。

First, as Barringer had recognized, many large fragments from an impact have been found on the desert plains surrounding Meteor Crater.

比陨石坑大的撞击结构通常不能保存原始抛射物的碎片，因为它们在撞击时蒸发了。

Impact structures that are larger than Meteor Crater do not usually preserve fragments of the original projectiles because they vaporize on impact.

此外，大多数火山口是由火山气体持续压缩形成的，火山气体喷出大量碎片。

In addition, most volcanic craters are formed by sustained compression of volcanic gases, which blast out large volumes of fragments.

火山喷出物在火山口周围形成简单的环状带，第一次喷发的物质在底部，最后一次喷发的物质在顶部。

Volcanic ejecta form simple aprons around craters, the first-erupted materials at the bottom and the last at the top.

舒梅克的实地研究表明，陨石坑中存在着完全不同的情况，那里的喷出物形成了一个反向的片状物，在单词爆炸中被抛出并倾覆。

Shoemaker's field studies showed that a completely different situation exists at Meteor Crater, where the ejecta form an inverted flap, flung out and overturned in a single blast.

因此，通过边缘喷出物的钻孔将两次穿过相同的材料层。

Thus, a drill hole through the ejecta on the rim would pass through layers of the same material twice.

用舒梅克的话来说，地层似乎“从陨石坑的区域剥离出来，有点像盛开的花瓣。”

In Shoemaker's words, the strata appeared to "have been peeled back from the area of the crater, somewhat like petals of a flower blossoming."

在极高速撞击的实验室实验中，也观察到类似的结构。

Similar structures are observed in laboratory experiments involving hypervelocity impacts.

最后一个证据来自于对撞击中所涉及的巨大压力的影响的调查。

The final piece of evidence comes from an investigation of the effects of the intense pressures involved in an impact.

在陨石坑，破碎的目标岩石在200-400米深处被玻璃粘合在一起。

At Meteor Crater, shattered target rocks are cemented together by glass at depths of 200-400 meters.

玻璃是在撞击过程中由目标岩石熔化而形成的。

The glass is formed by melting of the target during the impact.

熔化主要是由于撞击过程中所涉及的非常高的压力造成的，并且由于压力几乎是瞬间施加的，因此称为冲击压力。

Melting occurs principally as a result of the very high pressures involved during an impact, and because the pressure is applied almost instantaneously, it is referred to as shock pressure.

在受撞击影响的岩石中经常发现不寻常的高压矿物。

Unusual high-pressure minerals are often found in the rocks affected by impact.

这些矿物质是在撞击过程中由冲击压力产生的。

These minerals are produced by shock pressure during the impact.

1962年，舒梅克提出了哥白尼环形山是撞击形成的理论，哥白尼环形山是月球近侧最突出的环形山之一。

In 1962 Shoemaker made a case for the impact formation of Copernicus Crater, one of the most prominent craters on the near side of the Moon.

在二十世纪六十年代结束之前，多数科学家已经开始接受月球陨石坑是由撞击而不是火山作用形成的观点。

Before the decade was out, most scientists had come to accept that lunar craters were formed by impact rather than volcanism.

The word "Dissenting" in the passage is closest in meaning to

The author mentions "drops of water hitting a puddle" in the passage for which of the following reasons?

According to paragraphs 1 and 2, which of the following seemed to disprove Gilbert's theory of lunar crater creation?

According to paragraph 3, what was E. J. Opik's contribution to the study of craters?

According to paragraph 3, which of the following best describes the impact of a meteor striking at high velocity?

The word "sustained" in the passage is closest in meaning to

Select the TWO answer choices that name things mentioned in paragraph 6 that involved structures resembling a blossoming flower. To receive credit, you must select TWO answers.

According to paragraph 7, the shock of a meteor impact causes all of the following to occur in the area EXCEPT

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. For example, large quantities of meteoric iron were identified around the crater rim and on the surrounding plain.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a squareto add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

The Impact Origin of Lunar Craters From their discovery in 1609 until recently, lunar craters were almost unanimously thought to have volcanic origins, even though the topography of the Moon and its craters had been studied minutely by generations of observers. Dissenting voices, such as that of Robert Hooke, who postulated in 1665 that they were formed by the impact of meteors, did little to sway the majority opinion. The most serious challenge to the volcanic-formation hypothesis was made in 1893 by the geologist G. K. Gilbert. After analyzing the depth-to-diameter ratios of craters, Gilbert suggested that the craters could have been formed only by the impact of meteors. The central peaks that were commonly observed resulted from rebound of rock, in a similar manner to liquids (think of drops of water hitting a puddle). Bright rays surrounded many craters that were formed from material flung out during the impact-impact ejecta. Although impacts with a surface can occur at all angles, from less than 5°to 90°, early experiments suggested that only vertical (90 ) impacts were capable of producing circular craters. So the main argument against an impact mechanism for lunar crater formation was that only circular craters could be seen on the Moon. However, Gilbert himself showed that the average impact angle was 45-in fact, very few impacts were close to vertical. In 1916 E. J. Opik published work that recognized that the impact of meteors at very high velocities would be fundamentally different from the impact at low velocities created in early laboratory experiments. Such high-velocity impacts would have a similar effect to an explosion, and craters would be circular even at low impact angles. Nevertheless, the volcanic hypothesis remained intact, and there was significant unwillingness amongst the Scientific community about accepting impact cratering. This began to change in the 1960s with the work of the American geologist Gene Shoemaker, who made a lifetime study of cratering. Of the 170 known impact craters on the Earth, Meteor Crater in Arizona was one of the first to be recognized as being formed from an impact. In 1906 D. M. Barringer had provided good evidence for impact formation. However, Meteor Crater was not universally accepted as an impact crater until the 1960s. Its impact origin was finally demonstrated in papers published in 1960 and1963 by Shoemaker. Three lines of evidence show that an impact, and not a volcanic eruption, formed Meteor Crater. First, as Barringer had recognized, many large fragments from an impact have been found on the desert plains surrounding Meteor Crater. Impact structures that are larger than Meteor Crater do not usually preserve fragments of the original projectiles because they vaporize on impact. In addition, most volcanic craters are formed by sustained compression of volcanic gases, which blast out large volumes of fragments. Volcanic ejecta form simple aprons around craters, the first-erupted materials at the bottom and the last at the top. Shoemaker's field studies showed that a completely different situation exists at Meteor Crater, where the ejecta form an inverted flap, flung out and overturned in a single blast. Thus, a drill hole through the ejecta on the rim would pass through layers of the same material twice. In Shoemaker's words, the strata appeared to "have been peeled back from the area of the crater, somewhat like petals of a flower blossoming." Similar structures are observed in laboratory experiments involving hypervelocity impacts. The final piece of evidence comes from an investigation of the effects of the intense pressures involved in an impact. At Meteor Crater, shattered target rocks are cemented together by glass at depths of 200-400 meters. The glass is formed by melting of the target during the impact. Melting occurs principally as a result of the very high pressures involved during an impact, and because the pressure is applied almost instantaneously, it is referred to as shock pressure. Unusual high-pressure minerals are often found in the rocks affected by impact. These minerals are produced by shock pressure during the impact. In 1962 Shoemaker made a case for the impact formation of Copernicus Crater, one of the most prominent craters on the near side of the Moon. Before the decade was out, most scientists had come to accept that lunar craters were formed by impact rather than volcanism.