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被称为翼龙的已灭绝飞行爬行动物是继昆虫之后第二类进化出飞行的动物群体。

The extinct flying reptiles called pterosaurs were the second group of animals (after insects) to evolve flight.

大多数翼龙的体型与现代海鸥相当。

Most pterosaurs were about the size of modern seagulls.

少数翼龙体型如麻雀般小，但一些晚期种类是有史以来最大的飞行动物。

A few were as small as sparrows, but some of the later species were the largest flying animals that have ever lived.

1817年，西奥多·冯·索梅林发表了第一份翼龙化石的描述，认为它是一种不寻常的蝙蝠物种，他绘制的重建图具有非常类似蝙蝠的姿势和翅膀。

In 1817 Theodore Von Soemmerring published the first description of a pterosaur fossil, and thinking that it was that of an unusual bat species, he drew his reconstruction with a very batlike posture and wing.

他早期的翼龙重建图自此一直影响着公众和科学界对翼龙的认知。

His early reconstruction of a pterosaur has haunted the public and scientific perception of pterosaurs ever since.

索梅林的重建图可以理解，因为他是第一个尝试描述翼龙的人，当时很少有博物学家接受主要灭绝动物群体的观点，而且翼龙和蝙蝠的翅膀都由极度延长的指骨支撑的膜组成。

Soemmerring's reconstruction is understandable given that he was the first to try to describe a pterosaur, that few naturalists of the time accepted the idea of major groups of extinct animals, and that both pterosaurs' and bats' wings consist of a membrane supported by enormously elongated finger bones.

索梅林展示的翼龙具有蝙蝠那样的侧向腿部和重新定位的脚，翼膜从手臂和手指沿着身体和腿部侧面一直延伸到脚踝。

Soemmerring showed his pterosaur with the laterally directed legs and reoriented feet of bats and with the wing membrane stretching from the arm and finger along the sides of the body and legs all the way to the ankle.

重建图还包括腿部之间的膜，类似于蝙蝠的膜。

The reconstruction also included a membrane stretching between the legs, similar to that in bats.

尽管19世纪末其他科学家提出了不那么像蝙蝠的翼龙描述，但通俗文学甚至一些科学文献直到20世纪80年代仍继续将翼龙描述为类似蝙蝠。

Even though other scientists developed less batlike descriptions of pterosaurs in the late 1800s, the popular literature, and even some scientific literature, continued to describe pterosaurs as batlike into the 1980s.

蝙蝠通过倒挂在树枝和洞穴顶部栖息。

Bats perch by hanging upside down from tree limbs and roofs of caves.

虽然许多蝙蝠是令人惊讶的敏捷攀爬者，但在平坦表面上爬行时通常显得笨拙。

Though many are surprisingly agile climbers, bats are generally awkward when crawling on level surfaces.

翼龙是否也倒挂并避免降落在地面上？

Did pterosaurs also hang upside down and avoid landing on the ground?

直到最近，一些古生物学家认为它们是这样做的，但现在大多数科学家同意翼龙在地面上的移动相当不错。

Until recently, some paleontologists thought they did, but most scientists now agree that pterosaurs got around on the ground reasonably well.

尚不确定的是翼龙是四足行走还是仅用后腿行走。

What is still uncertain is whether pterosaurs walked on all fours or just on their hindlegs.

翼龙的祖先是双足（两足）动物，用尾巴平衡前倾的躯干和头部。

Pterosaurs' ancestors were bipedal (two-footed) and used their tails to balance their forward-tilted trunks and heads.

早期翼龙也有长尾巴，很可能用后腿跑动，这对一个前肢为翅膀的动物来说显然很方便。

Early pterosaurs also had long tails and probably could have run on their hindlegs, certainly handy for an animal with wings for forelimbs.

然而，这些早期翼龙可能使用前肢行走，因为它们的臂骨和手骨仅略有增大——翅膀的大部分由巨大的第四指支撑。

These early pterosaurs, however, could have used their forelimbs for walking because their arm and hand bones were only slightly enlarged—most of the wing was supported by the gigantic fourth finger.

晚期翼龙更加神秘：它们的臂部，尤其是手部，显得太长，无法舒适地用于行走，但它们的尾巴太短，无法在仅用后腿行走时平衡身体。

Later pterosaurs are more enigmatic: their arms and especially their hands seem too long to be used comfortably for walking, but their tails were too short to counterbalance their bodies if they walked just on their hindlegs.

鸟类也有短而粗的尾骨，但它们用后腿行走得很好。

Birds also have short, stubby tail skeletons, but they manage to walk quite well on their hindlegs.

鸟类通过将大腿向前倾斜，使脚位于身体重心下方来实现这一点。

Birds manage this by angling the thighs forward to get their feet under the body's center of gravity.

它们通过广泛的髋部和大腿肌肉保持这个不稳定的角度。

They hold their thighs at this unstable angle with extensive hip and thigh muscles.

一些研究人员认为翼龙的髋骨太小，无法固定广泛的大腿定位肌肉，但其他人回应说，翼龙的腿骨和足骨与鸟类惊人地相似，翼龙一定像鸟类一样行走。

Some researchers have suggested that pterosaurs' hipbones were too small to anchor extensive thigh-positioning muscles, but others have responded that pterosaurs' leg and foot bones are so strikingly birdlike that pterosaurs must surely have walked like birds.

然而，最近一些翼龙专家得出结论，一些化石足迹——保存下来的足迹路径——是由翼手龙类翼龙留下的，这些动物显然是四肢行走。

Recently, however, some pterosaur experts have concluded that a number of fossil trackways—trails of preserved footprints—were made by pterydactyloid pterosaurs, and these animals clearly walked on all four limbs.

也许一些早期翼龙用后腿行走，但根据当前证据，大多数种类可能四肢行走。

Perhaps some early pterosaurs walked on their hindlegs, but according to current evidence, most species probably walked on all fours.

无论如何，翼展达八到十米、重量相当于成年人的大型翼龙似乎不太可能像蝙蝠一样仅限于在树上攀爬和倒挂在树枝上。

In any case, large pterosaurs, with eight-or ten-meter wingspans and weighing as much as an adult human, do not seem likely candidates for a batlike existence confined to clambering about in trees and hanging upside down from branches.

翼龙还拥有一些明显的动力飞行适应特征。

Pterosaurs also possessed some obvious adaptations for powered flight.

它们有大的胸骨（胸骨）用于附着强大的飞行肌肉，发达的肩骨来承载飞行中的身体重量，以及充满空气的骨头以减轻骨骼重量。

They had large sternums (breastbones) for attaching powerful flight muscles, well-developed shoulder bones to carry the body's weight in flight, and air-filled bones to lighten the skeleton.

一些翼龙甚至有叉骨（一种在鸟类中也发现的融合胸骨），可能像弹簧一样弯曲，帮助在上行时抬高翅膀。

Some even had a furcula (a fused breastbone also found in birds), perhaps to flex like a spring and help raise the wings during the upstroke.

最初的蝙蝠状重建图及其作为爬行动物的分类，使许多早期生物学家认为翼龙仅是滑翔者。

The original batlike reconstructions, along with their classification as reptiles, suggested to many earlier biologists that pterosaurs were only gliders.

然而，生物学家现在普遍认为翼龙能够进行动力扇翼飞行。

Biologists now, however, generally agree that pterosaurs were capable of powered, flapping flight.

事实上，肩关节明显专为正常的扇翼运动（向下向前、向上向后）而特化。

Indeed, the shoulder joint is clearly specialized for the down-and-forward, up-and-back movement of normal flapping.

In the discussion of Soemmerring in paragraph 1, why does the author mention that "few naturalists of the time accepted the idea of major groups of extinct animals”?

According to paragraph 1, Soemmerring believed that pterosaurs had all of the following features EXCEP

The word "awkward" in the passage is closest in meaning to

In paragraph 2, what evidence suggests that early pterosaurs walked on their hind legs only?

The word "slightly” in the passage is closest in meaning to

The word "strikingly" in the passage is closest in meaning to

What evidence is presented in paragraph 3 that at least some pterosaurs walked on all four of their limbs?

According to paragraph 4，what are two indicators that pterosaurs were capable of powered flight? To receive credit，you must select TWO answers.

Look at the four squares  that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Flying was thought to require more energy than cold-blooded reptiles were capable of generating.  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square  to add the sentence to the passage.

Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

Characteristics of Pterosaurs The extinct flying reptiles called pterosaurs were the second group of animals (after insects) to evolve flight. Most pterosaurs were about the size of modern seagulls. A few were as small as sparrows, but some of the later species were the largest flying animals that have ever lived. In 1817 Theodore Von Soemmerring published the first description of a pterosaur fossil, and thinking that it was that of an unusual bat species, he drew his reconstruction with a very batlike posture and wing. His early reconstruction of a pterosaur has haunted the public and scientific perception of pterosaurs ever since. Soemmerring's reconstruction is understandable given that he was the first to try to describe a pterosaur, that few naturalists of the time accepted the idea of major groups of extinct animals, and that both pterosaurs' and bats' wings consist of a membrane supported by enormously elongated finger bones. Soemmerring showed his pterosaur with the laterally directed legs and reoriented feet of bats and with the wing membrane stretching from the arm and finger along the sides of the body and legs all the way to the ankle. The reconstruction also included a membrane stretching between the legs, similar to that in bats. Even though other scientists developed less batlike descriptions of pterosaurs in the late 1800s, the popular literature, and even some scientific literature, continued to describe pterosaurs as batlike into the 1980s. Bats perch by hanging upside down from tree limbs and roofs of caves. Though many are surprisingly agile climbers, bats are generally awkward when crawling on level surfaces. Did pterosaurs also hang upside down and avoid landing on the ground? Until recently, some paleontologists thought they did, but most scientists now agree that pterosaurs got around on the ground reasonably well. What is still uncertain is whether pterosaurs walked on all fours or just on their hindlegs. Pterosaurs' ancestors were bipedal(two-footed) and used their tails to balance their forward-tilted trunks and heads. Early pterosaurs also had long tails and probably could have run on their hindlegs, certainly handy for an animal with wings for forelimbs. These early pterosaurs, however, could have used their forelimbs for walking because their arm and hand bones were only slightly enlarged-most of the wing was supported by the gigantic fourth finger. Later pterosaurs are more enigmatic: their arms and especially their hands seem too long to be used comfortably for walking, but their tails were too short to counterbalance their bodies if they walked just on their hindlegs. Birds also have short, stubby tail skeletons, but they manage to walk quite well on their hindlegs. Birds manage this by angling the thighs forward to get their feet under the body's center of gravity. They hold their thighs at this unstable angle with extensive hip and thigh muscles. Some researchers have suggested that pterosaurs' hipbones were too small to anchor extensive thigh-positioning muscles, but others have responded that pterosaurs' leg and foot bones are so strikingly birdlike that pterosaurs must surely have walked like birds. Recently, however, some pterosaur experts have concluded that a number of fossil trackways-trails of preserved footprints-were made by pterydactyloid pterosaurs, and these animals clearly walked on all four limbs. Perhaps some early pterosaurs walked on their hindlegs, but according to current evidence, most species probably walked on all fours. In any case, large pterosaurs, with eight-or ten-meter wingspans and weighing as much as an adult human, do not seem likely candidates for a batlike existence confined to clambering about in trees and hanging upside down from branches. Pterosaurs also possessed some obvious adaptations for powered flight. They had large sternums(breastbones) for attaching powerful flight muscles, well-developed shoulder bones to carry the body's weight in flight, and air-filled bones to lighten the skeleton. Some even had a furcula (a fused breastbone also found in birds), perhaps to flex like a spring and help raise the wings during the upstroke. How competent were they at flying? The original batlike reconstructions, along with their classification as reptiles, suggested to many earlier biologists that pterosaurs were only gliders. Biologists now, however, generally agree that pterosaurs were capable of powered, flapping flight. Indeed, the shoulder joint is clearly specialized for the down-and-forward, up-and-back movement of normal flapping.