Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in an art history class.

旁白：听一个艺术历史的讲座。

Professor: OK. As art historians, one of our fundamental tasks is to assign authorship to works of art, right?

教授：作为艺术史学家，我们的基本任务之一就是确定艺术作品的作者，对吧？

We're presented with a work of art, and we have to figure out who made it.

当呈现给我们一个艺术作品时，我们得弄清楚是谁创作的。

But this task becomes particularly difficult when we're dealing with works produced in Italy during the Renaissance, the 16th, 17th centuries.

但是这个任务会变得特别困难，尤其是我们面对的是意大利文艺复兴时期，16,17世纪的作品时。

Now, why is this the case?

现在，为什么会是这样的情况呢？

Anyone? Emily.

谁来回答一下？艾米丽。

Student: Urn... is it 'cause artists didn't sign their work?

学生：额，是不是因为艺术家们没有在他们的作品上署名？

I mean, didn't the whole concept of the artist as an individual developed later?

我的意思是，作为个体的艺术家这个概念是后来才发展起来的？

In like the 19th century?

比如说19世纪出现的？

Professor: Well, you are sort of on the right track.

教授：嗯，你说的有点正确。

The concept of the individual artist, especially the concept of the artist as an artistic genius struggling alone with a vision as opposed to... say... a mere artisan... well, the idea of the artist as a lone genius didn't develop until later.

个体艺术家这个概念，尤其是被认为孤独奋斗的艺术天才这个艺术家的概念，与工匠这个概念是截然相反的，嗯，作为孤独艺术天才的艺术家这个概念直到后来才发展出来。

But artists, individual artists, did sign their work during the Renaissance.

但是，艺术家，个体艺术家在文艺复兴时期在他们的作品上确实有署名。

In fact, you could say that's part of the problem.

事实上，这是问题的一部分。

Paintings were signed by the artist and that used to be understood to be a mark of Renaissance's individualism.

绘画是有艺术家署名的，并且这在当时被理解为文艺复兴时期个人主义的一种标志。

If a piece had Raphael's signature on it, we assume it was done by the great artist himself.

如果一幅作品有拉斐尔的签名，我们会认为它是由伟大的艺术家拉斐尔自己完成的。

Raphael, in the singular.

本人独自创作的。

But you see, art in Renaissance Italy was very much a collaborative business.

但是，你知道，意大利文艺复习时期的艺术创作是商业合作型的。

Painters and sculptors worked in a workshop.

画家和雕塑家在同一个工作室工作。

It was almost like a small business run by a master artist.

这几乎就像一个由大师级艺术家经营的小型企业。

You see, to deal with a wide variety of commissions they received, orders basically, for specific types of art, specific projects, to handle these, master artists often employed assistants as apprentices.

你看，为了处理他们收到的各种创作委托，也就是特定形式，特定项目的订单，为此，艺术大师们通常会雇佣一些助手来做他们的学徒。

And this was especially so if they worked on a large scale, huge paintings or sculptures, or if they were much in demand, like Raphael, for instance.

尤其是他们在处理规模较大的绘画或雕刻任务时，或者像拉斐尔那样受欢迎需求量很大的时候

He worked on some large paintings.

他创作了一些大规模的画作。

He painted frescos for the Vatican.

他为梵蒂冈作壁画。

He also received a great many commissions.

他也收到来了很多创作委托。

There's no way he could have completed every part of every project all by himself.

他是不可能凭一己之力完成每个作品的每个部分。

Now, these assistants might work for the master artist on a temporary or a permanent basis.

现在，这些助手可能暂时或者永久性地为艺术大师们工作。

And they might also specialize.

他们也可能很有专长。

For example, in Raphael's workshop, which might be called Raphael incorporated, one of the assistants specialized in animals.

例如，在拉斐尔的工作室，这可能被叫做拉斐尔企业，其中一个助手专长于动物的画作。

He actually painted a good number of the animals in Raphael's art.

他实际上在拉斐尔的作品中画了很多动物。

It maybe that a master signing a work was simply making a declaration that the work met the standards of the shop.

也许一个艺术大师在艺术作品上签名只是为了声明该副作品符合这家店的标准和要求。

And it wasn't just painters.

而且这并不仅限于画家。

Sculptors also worked together.

雕刻家也一起工作。

In fact, assistants were even more necessary if you were a master sculptor because statues take longer to make than paintings.

实际上，如果你是一个大师级雕塑家的话，雇佣助手更是必要，因为雕塑创作比绘画更耗时间。

And the master had to arrange for marble to be quarried, things like that.

并且艺术大师们需要安排开采大理石这样的事情。

Perhaps the most collaborative of all was architecture.

也许最需要合作的就是建筑。

There we see a real division of labor, what with carpenters, masons, unskilled labor just to carry materials to and fro, and so on.

在建筑中我们可以看到真正的分工，包括木匠、泥瓦匠、只是来回搬运材料的非熟练工等等

Plus, of course, your skilled artisans who carried out the master architect's design.

当然，还有熟练工匠执行建筑大师的设计。

Think of it, like, um, a ballet, you know.

想像一下，就像芭蕾舞，你知道。

All the dancers work together.

所有的舞蹈演员一同合作。

There's a division of labor.

这里有分工。

People have different roles.

每个人都有不同的角色。

And in order for the thing to come together, everyone needs to be aware of what others are doing and coordinate their work and have good timing.

为了把舞蹈跳的紧凑有序，每个舞蹈演员都要意识到别人在跳什么动作并协调自己的动作，还要把握好时机。

So for architecture, it's almost impossible to know who was responsible for any given detail.

因此，对建筑来讲，几乎不可能知道每个人负责的具体细节。

Was it the master architect?

是大师级别的建筑师？

The mason?

石匠？

An assistant mason?

助理石匠？

Maybe it was even the patron, the client who was paying for the art.

也许甚至是赞助人，也就是为这个艺术品付钱的客户。

Remember, it wasn't yet customary for architects to give their assistants measured drawings to work from.

记住，建筑师们还不习惯给他们的助手实测图纸来工作。

Instructions were given orally, not in writing.

指令说明通常是口头上的，而非书面的。

So we don't have those documents to tell us what exactly the master architect's plans were.

因此，我们没有具体文件告诉我们大师级别的建筑师们的具体设计方案。

The only time we have written records is when the architect wasn't actually there.

我们唯一有书面记录的时候只是在建筑师不在场的情况下。

Perhaps the architect was away on business and had to write out instructions and send them to the shop.

也许建筑师出差了，不得不把指令写下来并送去店里。

And another thing to think about: What effect do you suppose this approach would have had on innovation?

另外一件事情也要思考：你认为这种方法对创新会有什么影响？

I mean, since the hired artisans had been trained by other artisans, they tended to be trained to use traditional styles and techniques.

我的意思是，因为雇来的工匠们被其他工匠们培训过，他们倾向于被训练得使用传统的风格和技巧。

So if you're a master architect, uh, you've developed your own style.

因此，如果你是一个大师建筑师，你已经发展了你自己的风格。

Say you're calling for certain detail in the building you're designing, right?

比如说，你在你设计的建筑中有特定细节的要求，对吧？

And say this detail is different, purposely different, from the established tradition, the established style.

这些细节不同于既定的传统和既定的风格，是刻意不同的。

Well, most likely when the hired artisans would execute the design, rather than follow the intended design, they would stick with the more traditional style that they were familiar with.

好，最有可能的是，雇来的工匠们会执行这个设计，但却不是按照你所期望的设计执行，他们会坚持他们熟悉的较为传统的风格。

Workers would have to be supervised very closely to prevent this from happening.

必须对工人进行密切监督，以防止这种情况发生

Otherwise, as it often happened, there goes the designer's style and creativity.

否则，正如经常发生的那样，设计师的风格和创造力就会消失