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旁白：请听一段语言学课上的演讲。

Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a linguistics class.

教授一直在讨论动物交流体系的问题。

The professor has been discussing animal communication systems.

演讲者：好的，上次我们讲到蜜蜂的舞蹈是为了指出食物藏在什么地方，我们还谈到不同种鸟的相互呼唤和发出的各种声音。

Lecturer: So last time, we covered the dances honey bees do to indicate where food can be found and the calls and songs of different types of birds.

今天，我想讲一下哺乳动物身上发现的某些交流体系，特别是灵长类动物，像猩猩，黑猩猩和大猩猩……

Today, I'd like to look at...at some communication systems found in mammals, particularly in primates, such as orangutans, chimpanzees, gorillas...

当你讲到大猩猩的语言时，你是说像人类进行的教会大猩猩手语或其他语言的实验吗？

But when you talk about gorilla language, do you mean like, those experiments where humans taught them sign language or a language like...

在座的有听到我用了“语言”这个词吗？

Now, who in this class heard me use the word “language”?

我们这里讲的是，交流的体系是吧？

What we're talking about here are systems of communication, all right?

学生1：哦，对不起，交流，对。

Student: Oh, sorry, communication, right.

But could you maybe, like, clarify what the difference is?

演讲者：当然，这问题合情合理。

Lecturer: Of course, that's a fair question.

好的，嗯，首先，我们需要清楚语言是一种交流方式，而不能反过来说。

OK, well, to start with, let's make it clear that language is a type of communication, not the other way around.

那么所有的交流体系，包括语言，都有共同的特征。

OK, so all communication systems, language included, have certain features in common.

比如说，从蜜蜂做出的跳舞动作的信号，到人类语言中的单词和句子。

For example, the signals used to communicate from the bee's dance movements, to the word and sentences found in human languages.

所有这些信号都传递出某些信息。

而所有的交流体系都是有目的的，某种实用主义的功能。也许是对出现危险的警告或提供其他需要的信息。

And all communication systems serve a purpose, a pragmatic function of some sort–warning of danger perhaps or offering other needed information.

但是在人类语言中有几种特征，在其他任何物种的交流体系中从来没有发现过。

But there're several features peculiar to human language that have, for the most part, never been found in the communication system of any other species.

Animals...eh..animals have instinctive communication systems.

当一只小狗长到一定岁数的时候，它便能够吠。

When a dog, a puppy gets to certain age, it's able to bark.

它不用从其他狗身上学什么就会吠了。

It barks without having to learn how from other dogs, it just barks.

然而，人类语言很多都需要从他人那里习得。

But much of human language has to be learned from other humans.

还有什么其他特征让人类语言独一无二呢？

什么让动物交流与众不同呢？Deborah？

What makes it different from animal communication? Deborah?

演讲者：好的，这是另一种特征。

学生2：就像我去年在生物课上说到的，我记得当时讲到一次关于草原犬鼠的研究。我想研究人员宣称草原犬鼠发出的警告声构成了语言，因为它们这种不同的说话的能力。

Student: I mean I mention this ‘cause like in my biology class last year, I kind of remember talking about a study on prairie dogs, where, I think the researchers claimed that the warning cries of prairie dogs constitute language, because they have these different parts of speech.

你知道，像名字，说出它们发现的捕猎者的类型，描述大小和外形的形容词，动词等……但现在似乎……

You know, like nouns, to name the type of predator they spotted, adjectives to describe its size and shape, verbs..., but now it seems like...

I'm familiar with the study you're talking about.

而你们中可能有人不知道,草原犬鼠不是狗。

And for those of you who don't know, prairie dogs are not actually dogs.

它们是藏在美国西部和墨西哥洞穴和草原中的啮齿类动物。

They're a type of rodent who, who burrow in the ground, in the grasslands of the western United States and Mexico.

而在研究中,研究人员研究的是当它们发现捕猎者时,发出的高亢的吠叫声。

In this study, the researchers looked at the high-pitched barks a prairie dog makes when it spots predator.

而从中他们会发出一些挺……呃,他们发出的呼唤宣称了这是一种真实的语言，运用他们自己原始的语法。

And from this they made some pretty.., well, they made some claims about these calls qualifying as an actual language, with its own primitive grammar.

但事实上，这些警告声与在某一种类猴子上发现的别无他样。

But actually, these warning calls are no different from those found among certain types of monkeys.

嗯，我们不要卷入这样的问题：像名词或动词的概念是否会被有意义地运用在动物的交流中。

And, well, let's not even get into the question of whether concepts like noun and verb can be meaningfully applied to animal communication.

另一种我们将真正的语言区分开来的因素是一种我们称为“间断性”的特质。

Another thing that distinguishes a real language is a property we call “discreteness”.

换句话说，信息是由各种小部分信息组成的，句子是由各种单词组成的，单词是来自于各个音素组成的，等等。

In other words, messages are built up out of smaller parts, sentences out of words, words out of individual sounds, etc.

而也许你会说草原犬鼠发出的信息是来自更小部分的信息。

Now maybe you could say that the prairie dog's message is built from smaller parts.

比如，草原犬鼠发现捕猎者，一只草原狼正在迅速靠近。

Like say for example, our prairie dog spots a predator, a big coyote approaching rapidly.

因此一只草原犬鼠会发出表示“草原狼”和“大只”的信号，而还有另一个信号，表示其靠近速度有多快。

So the prairie dog makes a call that means “coyote”, then one that means “large”, and then another one to indicate its speed.

但你会真的认为这些呼唤信号的次序不同意义也不同？不。

But do you really suppose it makes any difference what order these calls come in? No.

然而这种组成语言的间断的单元不能以不同的方式组合起来。

But the discrete units that make up language can be put together in different ways.

单位小的信息能够用来组成无限数量的信号，包括那些全新的信号抑或那些以前表达过的。

Those smaller parts can be used to form an infinite number of messages, including messages that are completely novel, that have never been expressed before.

比如，我们可以讲一下两者区分：“一只草原狼快速移动”和“将草原狼移动得快点”或者“动作快点，大只草原狼”。而我真的怀疑是否有人曾经说过以上这些句子。

For example, we can differentiate between: “A large coyote moves fast.” and say “Move the large coyote fast.”or “Move fast, large coyote.”, and I truly doubt whether anyone has ever uttered either of these sentences before.

人类语言是一种多产而自由开放的交流体系，而其他语言交流体系没有这种特质。

Human language is productive, an open-ended communication system, whereas no other communication system has this property.

另一种任何动物交流都没有显示过的语言特征叫做“位移”。

And another feature of language that's not displayed by any form of animal communication is what we call “displacement”.

那就是，语言是抽象的，我们所讲的东西可以此时此刻此地并不在场的。

That is, language is abstract enough that we can talk about things that aren't present here and now.

比如“我的朋友Jo不在房间里”或“下周四很可能下雨。”

Things like “My friend Joe is not in the room.” or “It will probably rain next Thursday.”

草原犬鼠也许能够跟你说你的上空有一只老鹰正在盘旋，但是他们从来没有能够描述上周看到的东西。

Prairie dogs may be able to tell you about a hawk that’s circling overhead right now, but they never show any inclination to describe the one they saw last week.

Why does the student mention a research project she studied in a biology class?

What is the professor's opinion of a recent study of prairie dogs?

What does the professor say about the individual units that make up human languages?

The professor uses the sentence, "Move the large coyote fast", in order to illustrate two features of language. What are they?

Listen again to part of the lecture. Then answer the question. Why does the professor say this:

Listen to part of a lecture in a linguistics class. The professor has been discussing Animal communication systems. 
P: So, last time, we covered the dates as the honeybees do to indicate where food can be found and the calls and songs of different types of birds. Today I’d like to get um..at some communication systems found in mammals, particularly in primates such as P, chimpanzees, gorillas..Yes, Thomas? 
A: Um.. excuse me, professor, but when you talked about gorilla language, do you mean like those experiments where humans taught them sign language or..or a language like a… 
P: Okay, Okay. Wait just a minute. Now, who in this class heard me use the word language. No one I hope. What we are talking about here are systems of communication. Alright? 
A: Oh, sorry. Communication, right. Uh.. but could you maybe like..clarify what the differences? 
P: Of course, that’s a fair question. 
Okay, well, to start with, let’s make it clear that language is a type of communication. Not the other way around. Okay, so all communication systems, language included, have certain features in common. For example, the signals used to communicate from the bee’s dance movements to the words and sentences found in human language, all these signals convey meaning. And all communication systems serve a purpose, a pragmatic function of some sort. Warning of danger perhaps, or offering other needed information. But there are several features peculiar to human language that have, for the most part, never been found in the communication system of any other species. For one thing, learn ability. Animals..uh animals have instinctive communication systems. Um.. when a dog, a puppy gets to a certain age, it’s able to bark. It barks without having to learn how from other dogs. It just barks. But much of the human language has to be learned from other humans. What else makes human language unique? What makes it different from animal communication? Deborah. 
B: Uh.. how about grammar? Like having verbs, nouns, adjectives. 
P: Okay, that’s another feature and it’s a good example. 
B: I mean.. I mentioned this cause like in my biology class last year I kind of remember talking about a study on prairie dogs where.. I think the researcher’s claimed that the warning cries of prairie dogs constituted two languages because they have these different parts of speech. You know, like nouns to name the type for predator they spotted. Uh.. adjectives to describe its size and shape. Verbs, um.. but now it seems like … 
P: alright, hold on a moment. I’m familiar with the study you’re talking about and for those of you who don’t know prairie dogs are not actual dogs. There are type of rodents who barrow in the ground and in the grasslands of the western United States in Mexico. In this study, the researchers looked at the high-pitched barks of prairie dog makes when it spots predator. And from this thing they’ve made some pretty, well, they made some claims about these calls qualifying as an actual language with its own primitive grammar. But actually these warning calls are no different from those found on certain types of monkeys. And well, let’s not even get into the question of whether concepts like noun and verb can be meaningfully applied to animal communication. 
Another thing that distinguishes a real language is a property we call discreteness. In other words, messages are built up out of smaller parts. Sentences out of words, words out of individual sounds , etc. Now, maybe you could say that the prairie dogs’ message is built from smaller parts. Like, say for example our prairie dog spots a predator, a big Coyote approaching rapidly. So the prairie dog makes a call that means Coyote. Then one that means large and then another one to indicate speed. But do you really suppose it makes any difference what order these calls come in? No. But they discrete units that make up language can be put together in different ways. Those smaller parts can be used to form an infinite number of messages, including messages that are completely novel, that have never been expressed before. For example, we can differentiate between a large Coyote moves fast and say um.. move the large Coyote fast or move fast, large Coyote. And I truly doubt whether anyone is ever uttered either of these sentences before. Human language is productive, an open-ended communication system where there’s no other communication system has this property. 
Another thing that distinguishes a real language is a property we call discreteness. In other words, messages are built up out of smaller parts. Sentences out of words, words out of individual sounds , etc. Now, maybe you could say that the prairie dogs’ message is built from smaller parts. Like, say for example our prairie dog spots a predator, a big Coyote approaching rapidly. So the prairie dog makes a call that means Coyote. Then one that means large and then another one to indicate speed. But do you really suppose it makes any difference what order these calls come in? No. But they discrete units that make up language can be put together in different ways. Those smaller parts can be used to form an infinite number of messages, including messages that are completely novel, that have never been expressed before. For example, we can differentiate between a large Coyote moves fast and say um.. move the large Coyote fast or move fast, large Coyote. And I truly doubt whether anyone is ever uttered either of these sentences before. Human language is productive, an open-ended communication system where there’s no other communication system has this property. 
And another feature of language that’s not displayed by any form of animal communication is what we call displacement. That is language is abstract enough that we can talk about things that aren’t present here and now. Things like my friend Joe is not in the room. Or it will probably rain next Thursday. Prairie dogs may be able to tell you about a hawk that is circling overhead right now, but they’ve never shown of any inclination to describe the one they saw last week. 
A: Um.. excuse me, professor, but when you talked about gorilla language, do you mean like those experiments where humans taught them sign language or..or a language like a… 
P: Okay, Okay. Wait just a minute. Now, who in this class heard me use the word language. No one I hope. What we are talking about here are systems of communication. Alright?