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旁白：听一段乐器历史的讲座。

Narrator: Listen to part of a lecture in a history of musical instruments class.

教授：乐器朝着优化他们声学特性的方向发展，乐器是如何震动并且将这些震动通过空气传播到我们的耳膜。

Professor: So musical instruments evolved in ways that optimize their acoustical properties, how the instrument vibrates and sends those vibration through the air to our eardrums.

现在，专业的音乐家们对于他们的乐器是非常挑剔的，他们想要乐器帮助他们充分地表达作曲者的意图，这个对于观众来说，当然会转变成更愉快的收听经历。

Now professional musicians are very particular about their instruments, they want instruments that help them fully express the intent of the composer, which of course translates into a more enjoyable listening experience for the audience members.

但是，大部分的听众可能没有意识到乐器到底有多重要。

Yet most audience members probably aren't even aware of how much the instrument matters.

我的意思是，你回想一下最近一次你参加的音乐会。

I mean, OK. Think about the last concert you attended.

当你鼓掌的时候，什么在你脑海中闪过？

When you applauded, what went through your mind?

学生：我最近听了一个小提琴演奏，这个演奏完全将我征服了。

Student: I recently heard a violinist who totally blew me away.

所以，当我鼓掌的时候，我猜我对他的技艺表示了欣赏，他肯定做了大量的练习。

So when I applauded, I guess I was showing my appreciation for his skill, the hours of practicing he must have put in.

它看上去和我的差不多，这在某种程度上让我很受鼓舞，我的小提琴也可能演奏出漂亮的音色，也许有一天我也能演奏的那么好听。

It looked exactly like mine, which is inspiring in a way knowing my violin could also produce beautiful tones, that maybe I would sound that good someday.

教授：我希望你有一天可以做到。

但是，如果你的小提琴不如他的好……

But if your violin isn't as good as his…

学生：你的意思是他用我的小提琴演奏的话，可能就无法弹出一样好的声音？

Student: You mean he might not sound as good playing my violin?

教授：正如我说的，每个乐器的音质都不同。

Professor: As I said, tone quality differs from instrument to instrument.

为什么一个乐器的声音比另一个更好听，即使他们看起来一模一样？

Why does one instrument sound more beautiful than another, even if they look identical?

这里有个有趣的案例，案例是关于，在17世纪末18世纪初，在意大利北部克雷莫纳这座城市制作的出色的一代小提琴。

There's a particularly interesting case with an extraordinary generation of violins made in Northern Italy, in the city of Cremona, back in the late 1600s--early 1700s.

这些古老的克雷莫纳小提琴被人作为世界顶尖的。

These vintage Cremonese violins are considered the best in the world.

但是，这个并不是说制作这些小提琴的人比起现在的人的技术够精湛。

But it's not like the makers of those violins were any more skilled than their modern-day counterparts.

当今的小提琴制作者可以很好地复制克雷莫纳小提琴所有的物质特性。

Today's top violin makers can pretty much replicate all the physical attributes of a Cremonese violin.

但是，大家普遍地认为现代小提琴的音质比不上古老的。

But it's generally thought that the acoustical quality of modern violins doesn't live up to the quality of the vintage ones.

学生：所以古老的小提琴的什么特性被复制了？

Student: So what attributes of the old violins have been replicated?

教授：噢，它们的尺寸，形状，它们指板的高度，额，大体上的技艺。

Professor: Oh, their dimensions, shape, their fingerboard height, uh, general craftsmanship.

很长一段时间，人们认为过去用来覆盖保护小提琴的清漆是特别的。

For a long time, people thought the varnish used to coat and protect the violins was special.

但是研究表明，它和家具上使用的一样，是普通的清漆。

But research showed it was the same ordinary varnish used on furniture.

但是，研究人员已经发现，制作这些小提琴的木头有点特别。

However, researchers have discovered that there are something special about the wood the violins were made from.

并且最近，他们已经可以复制那个了。

And recently they have been able to replicate that too.

学生：怎么复制？除非克雷莫纳用的树木还活着？

Student: How? Unless the trees that Cremonese used are still alive.

教授：树木没有被复制，只复制了木头，尤其是木头的密度。

Professor: The trees weren't replicated, just the wood, specifically the wood's density.

树木，那些不在热带地区的树木季节性地增长，他们在每年早期春季的时候比在这一年晚些时候要增长的快。

Trees, old trees that don't grow in the tropics grow seasonally, they grow faster early in the year in the springtime than they do later in the year.

所以早期增长的木头相对多孔渗水的。

So early growth wood is relatively porous.

晚期增长的木头更加密，而少气孔的。

这些变化在树木增长的年轮上显示出来。

And this variation shows up in the trees growth rings.

密集的层级比稍稀疏的层级更加的暗淡。

The denser layers are generally darker than the less dense layers.

我们将这样的变化称为密度差。

We call this variation the density differential.

树木密度的变化影响了震动，那么也因此影响了声音。

Variations in wood density affect vibrations, and therefore, sound.

当科学家们第一次分析古克雷莫纳小提琴木头的时候，那它们和现代提琴的木头作比较，它们计算了平均密度，并没有发现不同。

When scientists first analyzed the wood of vintage Cremonese violins in compared with the modern violin wood, they calculated the average density and found no difference.

随后，其他的研究人员测试了密度差，发现了巨大的差异。

Later, other researchers measured the density differential and found a significant difference.

现代的小提琴有着更大的树木密度变化，更大的密度差。

Modern violins had a greater variation, a larger differential.

学生：所以你的意思是，克雷莫纳小提琴的木头密度更加均匀？

Student: So you mean the density of the wood in the Cremonese violins is, is more uniform?

学生：但是意大利北部不在热带啊。

Student: But Northern Italy isn't in the tropics.

教授：不在。但是天气很关键。

事实证明制作克雷莫纳小提琴的树木生长在小冰河时期，这个时期整个欧洲的温度比正常情况下都要低。

Turns out the Cremonese violins were made from trees that grew during a Little Ice Age, a period when temperatures across Europe were significantly lower than normal.

所以，树木整年都很平均地生长，使得密度差相对小。

So the trees grew more evenly throughout the year, making the density differential relatively small.

学生：但是你说有人复制了了克雷莫纳的木头。

Student: But you said someone replicated the Cremonese wood.

Professor: The density differential was replicated.

试着在他们的温室里模仿冰河时期的气候，并且在那里种树？

Try to simulate an Ice Age climate in their greenhouse and grow some trees in there?

教授：不是的，发生的事情是，一个物质学家发现了加工木头的一种方法，使得它和克雷莫纳木头在声音上相似。

Professor: No, what happened was a material scientist figured out a way to process wood to make it acoustically similar to the Cremonese wood.

他主要是将木头暴露于一种真菌，一种蘑菇。

He basically exposed the wood to a species of fungus, uh, a mushroom.

但是这种特别的真菌只一点点咬掉木头特定的层面，其他层面会被留下。

But this particular fungus nibbles away only at certain layers in the wood, leaving other layers alone.

结果，用真菌处理的木头的密度差和克雷莫纳木头的接近。

As a result, the density differential of the fungi-treated wood approach that of the Cremonese wood.

What does the professor imply about the best modern violin makers?

Why does the professor discuss the growth cycle of trees?

What factor accounts for the particular density differential of the wood used in the Cremonese violins?

The professor describes an experiment in which wood was exposed to a fungus before being made into a violin. What point does the professor make about the fungus?

Narrator 
Listen to part of a lecture in a history of musical instruments class. 
Professor 
So musical instruments evolved in ways that optimize their acoustical properties, how the instrument vibrates and sends those vibration through the air to our eardrums. Now professional musicians are very particular about their instruments, they want instruments that help them fully express the intent of the composer, which of course translates into a more enjoyable listening experience for the audience members. Yet most audience members probably aren’t even aware of how much the instrument matters. I mean, OK. Think about the last concert you attended. When you applauded, what went through your mind? 
Student 
I recently heard a violinist who totally blew me away. So when I applauded, I guess I was showing my appreciation for his skill, the hours of practicing he must have put in. 
Professor 
And his violin? 
Student 
Didn’t really think about it. It looked exactly like mine, which is inspiring in a way knowing my violin could also produce beautiful tones, that maybe I would sound that good someday. 
Professor 
I hope you do. But if your violin isn’t as good as his… 
Student 
You mean he might not sound as good playing my violin? 
Professor 
As I said, tone quality differs from instrument to instrument. The question is why. Why does one instrument sound more beautiful than another, even if they look identical? There’s a particularly interesting case with an extraordinary generation of violins made in Northern Italy, in the city of 
Cremona, back in the late 1600s - early 1700s. These vintage Cremonese violins are considered the best in the world. But it’s not like the makers of those violins were any more skilled than their modern-day counterparts. They weren’t. Today’s top violin makers can pretty much replicate all the physical attributes of a Cremonese violin. But it’s generally thought that the acoustical quality of modern violins doesn’t live up to the quality of the vintage ones. 
Professor 
As I said, tone quality differs from instrument to instrument. The question is why. Why does one instrument sound more beautiful than another, even if they look identical? There’s a particularly interesting case with an extraordinary generation of violins made in Northern Italy, in the city of Cremona, back in the late 1600s - early 1700s. These vintage Cremonese violins are considered the best in the world. But it’s not like the makers of those violins were any more skilled than their modern-day counterparts. They weren’t. Today’s top violin makers can pretty much replicate all the physical attributes of a Cremonese violin. But it’s generally thought that the acoustical quality of modern violins doesn’t live up to the quality of the vintage ones. 
Student 
So what attributes of the old violins have been replicated? 
Professor 
Oh, their dimensions, shape, their fingerboard height, uh, general craftsmanship. For a long time, people thought the varnish used to coat and protect the violins was special. But research showed it was the same ordinary varnish used on furniture. However, researchers have discovered that there are something special about the wood the violins were made from. And recently they have been able to replicate that too. 
Student 
How? Unless the trees that Cremonese used are still alive. 
Professor 
The trees weren’t replicated, just the wood, specifically the wood’s density. Density is determined by how trees grow. Trees, old trees that don’t grow in the tropics grow seasonally, they grow faster early in the year in the springtime than they do later in the year. So early growth wood is relatively porous. Late growth wood is denser, less porous. And this variation shows up in the trees growth rings. The denser layers are generally darker than the less dense layers. We call this variation the density differential. Variations in wood density affect vibrations, and therefore, sound. When scientists first analyzed the wood of vintage Cremonese violins in compared with the modern violin wood, they calculated the average density and found no difference. Later, other researchers measured the density differential and found a significant difference. Modern violins had a greater variation, a larger differential. 
Student 
So you mean the density of the wood in the Cremonese violins is, is more uniform? 
Professor 
Correct. 
Student 
But Northern Italy isn’t in the tropics. 
Professor 
No. But climate matters. Turns out the Cremonese violins were made from trees that grew during a Little Ice Age, a period when temperatures across Europe were significantly lower than normal. So the trees grew more evenly throughout the year, making the density differential relatively small. 
Student 
But you said someone replicated the Cremonese wood. 
Professor 
The density differential was replicated. 
Student 
What did they do? Try to simulate an Ice Age climate in their greenhouse and grow some trees in there? 
Professor 
No, what happened was a material scientist figured out a way to process wood to make it acoustically similar to the Cremonese wood. He basically exposed the wood to a species of fungus, uh, a mushroom. In the forest, fungi are decomposers. They break down dead wood. But this particular fungus nibbles away only at certain layers in the wood, leaving other layers alone. As a result, the density differential of the fungi-treated wood approach that of the Cremonese 
wood. 
Yet most audience members probably aren’t even aware of how much the instrument matters. I mean, OK. Think about the last concert you attended. When you applauded, what went through your mind? 
Student 
I recently heard a violinist who totally blew me away. So when I applauded, I guess I was showing my appreciation for his skill, the hours of practicing he must have put in. 
Professor 
And his violin? 
Student 
Didn’t really think about it. It looked exactly like mine, which is inspiring in a way knowing my violin could also produce beautiful tones, that maybe I would sound that good someday.